African-American Studies

The experience of being black or of mixed race was far different in Latin American countries than in the U.S. Like the U.S. there was a long tradition of miscegenation, from the first settlers who arrived sans women to begin setting up shop in the lands from Mexico and downward through the South American continent and began intermingling with the Indian women. When slaves were brought by the Spanish, the Portuguese and the Dutch, they too began to have children and intermarry with the European and native people. Unlike the U.S., where this mixing turned political and slavery became a means of dehumanizing blacks, the blacks and mixed race people of Latin America remained empowered by a common sense of humanity. The readings emphasize that while slavery was very much a reality, the social constructs of Latin American society and its approach to race created a very different experience and environment.
   
Latin America was not devoid of its own ideas of racial separation, developing its own hierarchy of society. However, I found it interesting that the central idea underlying the racial caste system was as much social as racial. The blacks, brought from Africa and sold just as theyd been around the world, were at the bottom rungs of society. However, this owes more to them being slaves and connected to hard labor than to race. The race is more incidental and while used to manipulate and exploit it never really becomes the damning principle it is in the American South, where as John Jea notes in his narrative that blacks become personified as  devils.  Being black or mixed didnt necessarily mean that you were destined for a life of slavery. As the reading notes, free blacks and mixed families could but  white  papers that would give them the same financial, educational, and social privileges as whites. In Brazil, I found it interesting, that slaves had the same rights as free blacks in terms of education, the right to defend themselves and their wives (against lecherous advances by other men). This is a big contrast to the Southern states rules not only during slavery but after the Reconstruction as well. There is not that sense of hate or racial superiority. Instead, if a black could improve their social status they could achieve the same fortunes as a while, even that of marriage to another race.
   
The reading notes that in marriage and society a persons status was decided more by their  origins as a sondaughter of the Old World or the New World. This led to a lot of intermarriage and miscegenation, as a result people in the highest accolades of society were of mixed race heritage. Important I think in the major difference between the Southern U.S. states policies on slaveryrace and those of Latin America lies in the one drop concept. Where in the U.S. one  drop of black blood, no matter how insignificant, branded a person as black with all the discrimination it entailed. On the other hand, in Latin American countries, one drop of white blood had the same connotations. In addition, since the people of Latin America were more ambiguous over the subject of race, the religious justifications for slavery failed to take hold. I think the people of Latin America, particularly the rulers, were less inclined to accept the propaganda against race and if that had been the case in the U.S. perhaps the history of African American would have been very different.
   
Though Ive really only been able to cover a couple of the variations in the experience of Africans and mixed individuals in Latin America versus the U.S., the basic difference was how race was approached and explained in the two areas. By approaching race as a consequence of nature and not a condemnation by an angry God, blacks and mixed people were able to become part of the society. They were not just chattel but people, who were in some instances owned by other people. While it doesnt justify the practice of slavery in Latin America it shows how differently the practice was broached across not just history but the world.

Like slavery itself, the idea of race and in particular miscegenation (the mixing of races) evolved over time and came to a political and social head in the 18th century American South. A major part of the colonization of the new world involved this very practice, which was condemned by so many proponents of not only slavery but racial discrimination. I dont think it is any mistake that as the outrage against miscegenation grew, so too did the white American cultures idea of racial superiority. In many respects, it seems that the major social atrocities of both slavery and later the pre-Civil Rights of African Americans were increasingly justified by race rather than economic or even cultural differences previously used to distinguish various parts of American society.
   
Given the later legal and social pariah surrounding miscegenation, I found it interesting that the growth of the South and the institution of slavery owes much to this practice. Even more interesting is the manner in which it was accepted in various parts of the American territories, while representing for others a departure from morality. As the reading notes, the Spanish, French and even English explorers were themselves quite often party to this same practice in the early days of settlement, when lacking in female companionship from their own countries they developed relationships with Native Americans. In addition, the later comparative status of white indentured servants and their black counterparts, indentured for life, led to much intermingling between those two races. Both of low status in the American colonies, Scottish and Irish women paired with African men.
   
It was only when slavery became transformed from human exploitation to specifically racial exploitation that the outcry against miscegenation became deafening. Though the Irish were themselves regarded as the lowliest of whites, they were still white. In order to justify the enslavement of Africans based on racial ideas from interpretations of Christianity, the whites of lower birth and status had to be elevated in one manner or another. Slavery cannot be justified by race if the very race that is attempting to enslave another also enslaves its own. That different states approached the matter in varying ways, depending on their own racial makeup and distance from the dominant ideals of the South, merely shows that attitudes on race were a product of individual societies.
   
By far the most interesting aspect of this reading is the fact of white slave-owners, who preached against the immorality of race mixing within general society, bred with their own slaves to create more slaves for themselves. This hypocrisy is perhaps one of the most disturbing of immoralities, as it became not only the norm but was promoted in this society. Even in those societies like New Orleans whose Quadroon Ball drew spectators from afar every year, there was a strict hierarchy involved in the mixing of the races. They themselves were products of a mixed race union and became party to more in their relationships with the rich whites. Admired by men, the beautiful pale skinned quadroons of New Orleans were debased in their role as objects just as field hands and house servants. They didnt have any security or real freedom but instead became playthings for rich men, just as their sisters in the fields became human brood mares.
   
The hypocrisy of a society which itself was discovered, founded, and built by the very mixing of races that was later abhorred (but still practiced) illustrates, I think, the basic immoralities and inconsistency of the 19th century slave system. Having made race their justification for continuing the enslavement of blacks, white society attempted to legally correct the discrepancies in society but failed to abide

The concept of slavery is often associated in our modern minds with the enslavement of African Americans ancestors. However, this was only one of many forms of slavery dating back thousands of years. It did not always have the direct association with race that was present in the 18th and 19th centuries. Instead, it was a prevalent method of subjugation for a broad set of reasons throughout almost all past civilizations. Even now, there is the modern form of slavery as seen in human trafficking of men, women, and children. Like the slavery in Ancient Greece or the American South, slavery has throughout time taken on aspects of the societies in which it has been present.
   
As the reading notes, the word slavery itself does not at its root have associations with race. Instead, the word slavery comes from the word slav, which itself was synonymous with the blond-haired, blue-eyed Germanic people. As they spread throughout Europe and were reduced to slaves, their ethnic designation became a derogatory name and from it came the word slavery. I find it interesting that while we tend to associate slavery with that in the American South or even the Caribbean, that the slavery envisioned and practiced in Europe and to which the Slavs were subjected was in many ways far more brutal than that of Africans in the Americas. There is also the fact that though Europeans stole and sold away entire families of Africans to slave-owners in America and around the world, the Moors of Africa too were stealing and enslaving whites for the same purpose. However, while Africans were dehumanized to help justify and propagate slavery, white slaves stolen by the Moors had a chance for freedom and never truly lost their humanity.
   
I think, this is perhaps on of the central differences between to two groups and is additionally, the reason the enslavement of one group cannot be seen as retribution for the enslavement of the other. A white could gain his freedom through conversion he never really lost his humanity in the eyes of the Africans but rather his humanity was seen as a service to them. On the other hand, in the American South, whites attempted to justify the enslavement of another human being in the face of their own religious and political ideologies by literally stripping them of their humanity. As the reading notes, Indians and Africans were seen as akin to Satan and therefore these  Christian  slaveholders could fall back on their religion as a justification.
   
The tribes of Africa too further exacerbated the issue by assisting in slave raids or themselves performing the stealing. But like the Moors, it stands to reason that their views of slavery, their idea of owning another human being did not carry the same meaning and application of the whites. I wonder, if the tribe leaders themselves knew the full ramifications of the slave trade and how it would shadow not only the lives of those carried across the ocean but that of Africa as well. However, opposing this idea is the fact that blacks as slave-owners were often times as likely to debase their slaves as whites.
   
Underlying the information in this reading is the idea that while slavery in the American South was unique in some respects, particularly in its concentration on race, historically it has not been a matter of race. However, in the experience of blacks in America, before and after emancipation, slavery has left a legacy of racially motivated degradation and dehumanization that altered not only the practice but our perceptions of it.

William A. Hotchkisss article in question, titled Slaved Codes of the State of Georgia, 1848 is in itself a compilation of laws that were imposed on the African American people of Georgia in the year 1848. These laws addressed several topics, namely, crimes and penalties, prosecution of offenses, correction of errors, pardons, execution, and costs.
   
I found some of the laws to be appalling and susceptible to being misused in a corrupt society. For instance, Article I (Crimes, Offenses, and Penalties), Section I (Capital Offenses), No. 4 confers the punishment of slaves in the event that they strike a white individual. I am in utter dismay at the fact that-upon first offense-should a slave such as wound or bruise a white man, he or she suffers the consequence of death. Furthermore, Article I, Section II (Minor Offenses), No. 12 punishes a person of color for being taught to read by another individual. Coincidentally, the individual teaching the slavefree person of color to read (in all probability a white manwoman), suffers no consequences, although they were in actuality the perpetrators of the crime. Moreover, Article II (Prosecution of Offenses), Section III (Evidence), No. 41 raises the question of slaves having the privilege of testifying as an eye witness in court. Nowhere did it state that a slave could testify as a witness for or against a white man.
   
This article is imperative to understanding the full extent of the deprivation of civil liberty for African Americans during the time the text was produced.  The injustice of the court system and maltreatment in the form of physical abuse (lashes as they referred to it) is evidence of a preceding uncivilized nation run by intolerant white men.

Chapter 6
This chapter discusses the lives of the slaves during the antebellum period at the peak of the cotton kingdom. Slavery experienced much development during this time. The chapter provides details on the various tasks of both the female and male slaves. The slave trade that existed amid the south is also made reference to. The slaves social lives, religious beliefs, character and families are also major topics of discussion. Upon reading the chapter, I developed a better understanding as for the slave society. It is eminent that they wanted to be able to communicate, pray, and spend time with their families just as any other citizen would. Their needs and desires were no different from those of a typical white man or woman. Why they were treated as such is beyond my comprehension.

Chapter 7
The number of free African Americans increases during the time period from 1820 to just before the Civil War. Nevertheless, blacks endured many obstacles and much discrimination, from segregation to black laws. In spite of these barriers, Northern blacks built their own communities with schools, churches, and organizations. Conversely, Southern blacks suffered more limitations. In all, regardless of where they resided, free African Americans struggled with racism and barriers. The extremity of the discrimination is evident in that black laws have been imposed on African Americans, even though they had become free slaves. I believe that the suffering of the African Americans after gaining their freedom was nearly as bad as when they were slaves. Nothing changed with regard to treatment and liberties except for the fact that they no longer had to work against their will. The underlying issue of discrimination still existed.

Chapter 8
This chapter covers the resistance to slavery after 1800, from abolitionists to rebellion. One revolt in particular that is discussed is Nat Turners Rebellion of 1831. Many black leaders such as David Walker and white leaders such as William Lloyd Garrison fought for the rights of African Americans. The text covers the period shortly following the Second Great Awakening, which prompted the abolitionist movement. The abolitionist movement was primarily led by blacks, although white women fought for the cause as well. However, white women were more concerned with civil liberties than with abolition. The abolitionist movement was yet another exhibit of the relentless efforts of African Americans to gain equality among society. Whites later become fearful of African Americans insurrections, for they often became violent.

Chapter 9
The antislavery movement lasted from 1833 to 1850. During this time, African Americans remained devoted to gaining equality and civil rights on par with those of their white counterparts. Further reiterated is the fact that northern blacks established schools and churches as their population grew in the urban areas by 1850. This led to more hostility in the antislavery movement. African Americans began to feel a sense of nationalism as they saw a greater purpose in what they fought for. Prior to the civil war, African Americans fought persistently for civil liberties and justice which they knew was rightfully and morally theirs. As their population grew, the African Americans united as a people in their fight against slavery and discrimination among a white, domineering society.

Chapter 10
This chapter focuses on slavery and the role of blacks (both free and captive) during the 1850s. Many eminent fugitive slaves are investigated, namely, William and Ellen Craft, Margaret Garner and Anthony Burns.  A general overview of the major events that followed throughout the decade is also provided, such as Abraham Lincoln becoming president and court cases such as the Dred Scott decision of 1857. African Americans positions among society were crucial in relation to these events and those that ultimately led to the Civil War in 1861. African Americans presence and significance in society, contrary to what whites would have liked to believe at the time, was profound. Their contributions to society, both negative and positive, were many. It is for this reason that they should have been regarded as would any ordinary citizen.

Chapter 1


Chapter 2
This primary theme of Chapter two was to discuss the beginnings of the Atlantic slave trade. The experiences of the Africans from their time of capture and through their voyage across the Atlantic Ocean are also portrayed. Further explored is a process called seasoning imposed on the African Americans. Seasoning took place during the Atlantic slave trade in an attempt to break slaves. The process comprised of rigorous training-generally on Plantations in the Caribbean-intended to prepare the African captives for working as slaves in America. The mortality rates for seasoning were despicably high, and reflect the extremity of abuse the Africans were subjugated to. Adding to the despair is that the seasoning process generally lasted from one to four years. Only those fit enough to survive it would then be exposed to more detrimental circumstances. Undoubtedly, they were perceived as dispensable, as reflected in their careless maltreatment of the West African people.

Chapter 3
The development of slavery amid the European colonies of North America (from 1526 to 1763) is the area of focus in this chapter. Moreover, the newly integrated culture (deemed African-American) from a mixture of European and African cultures is detailed. Slavery and the life of the slaves in the colonies is conferred, as well as the gender roles. I discovered from that chapter the extent to which the slaves resisted their captivity by resorting to violence at times. They ascertained that their culture would be preserved as well, which reveals their loyalty to tradition, heritage, and their ancestors. Even with subjugation to extreme cruelty, they relentless fought back, even if it meant risking their very existence. Clearly, the African Americans were a dauntless group of people.

Chapter 4
Covering the time period from 1763 to 1783, this chapter focuses on the intellectual and political aspects of the African American people and society during the American Revolution. Their positive view on Enlightenment, which focuses on the rights of humanity, is discussed. Furthermore, I was pleased to read about the attainment of freedom for many formal slaves following the fight for colonial independence. Many prominent African Americans are named throughout the chapter, some of which include Benjamin Banneker and Phillis Wheatley. After reading of the desperate struggles of the African Americans, I realize how much was sacrificed and how much endurance it took to finally be recognized as a part of human civilization, and be treated as the respectful, law abiding citizens that they were.

Chapter 5
The chapter covers the means by which slavery was abolished, and the reasons for this new change. Nevertheless, the existence of slavery in the south continued, as it was deep-rooted in the region. National Politics still revealed the lack of total eradication of both slavery and discrimination among society. Upon gaining eventual freedom in the south, there grew a relatively large community of African Americans. These dominantly black communities began to build religious establishments, educational institutions and organizations that clearly revealed a continued conflict with whites. The mere fact that upon their sovereignty, these African Americans sought to isolate themselves from the white community and cluster together is of no shock to me. With the new freedom to practice their religion and obtain an education without harassment, undoubtedly, they would build their own churches and schools.

Slavery in West African societies is mainly of economic importance. In the Niger Valley, for example, many slave communities produced agricultural surpluses for the rulers and nobles of Songhay, Gao, and other states. Other slaves are bought to mine gold, aid in the production of salt and as caravan workers (Guisepi ca. 2010). Slaves also functioned as investment and currency (Clark 1999, p. 93). White slaves, usually Circassian or Georgian girls, are bought to be concubines in large Muslim harems (Perbi 2001, p. 3).

Military Roles African-Americans Played During the American Revolution
Americans fought against British invasion without giving up their slaves. This encouraged the African-Americans to fight with the British who promised them freedom for their military services. Pressed against dwindling military personnel due to skirmish defeats, the Americans finally offered the African-American slaves freedom if they joined the military. Fighting on both sides clearly shows that African-Americans in the revolution did not care which political power wins but fought for freedom itself (Colorado College n.d.).

The author of the article 11th century Ghana, Abu Ubaydallah Al-bakri was a Muslim scholar from Cordoba Spain. He found material for his article by interviewing anyone who had been there. He also relied on his immense knowledge of Africas geography.

SUMMARY
This article talks of 11th century Ghana as having towns with two distinct religions Muslim and Paganism (Al-bakri, 2001). One of the towns was occupied by Muslims, they had imams, jurists and scholars. The kings town, named Al-Ghaba was six miles from the Moslem town. Although the rulers themselves were not Muslims, they either brought with them or welcomed Muslims as scribes and medicine men. In this town, the people practiced idol worshipping and offered sacrifices and offering. Ancient Ghana had gold mines which were under the kings custody.

The kingdom of Ghana eventually fell due to several reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly. At the same time there was a harsh drought and had a long-term effect on the kingdoms ability to sustain cattle and cultivation (Andrea  Overfield, 2000). There is also the knowledge that Almoravid Muslims came from the North Africa and invaded Ghana.

REFLECTIONS ON THE ARTICLE
The article manages to show how the kingdom was a center of trade in West Africa and how it derived its power and wealth from gold. Ghana played a major role in the exportation of Africans to America as slaves (Andrea  Overfield, 2000). The cape coast castle which is UNESCO world heritage site stands as a reminder of the millions of Africans that were shipped away as slaves to America.
Recently Ghanas parliament passed legislation which allowed any person of African decent in the Diaspora to live and to work in Ghana indefinitely. Ghana attracts far more African Americans than any other country in the continent. This is partly due to the sense that Ghana could be a spiritual homeland to the African Americans (Al-bakri, 2001).

Jackie Robinson is no doubt one among the few most influential figures in the American history. Through his devotion and determination, he broke the major league baseballs color line (Purvis, 1999). Despite the fact that in the 1940s life in America was highly characterized by segregation, Jackie Robison managed to become the first player in Brooklyn Dodgers, a baseball club that was predominantly for the whites (Purvis, 1999). As an expression for his love for the nation, Jackie Robinson quit his prosperous baseball career to join the American army during the Second World War. Still, Jackie Robinson is well known for his successful participation in other athletic sports such as basketball, track, and football. He spent most of his life striving to ensure that segregation ended in the nation thus making him a real icon in the realization of the freedom found in the modern American society (Henry, 1997). This essay is written as a discussion of the life of Jackie Robinson and how he influenced the American community particular the black American community.
Jackie Robinson did many things, which influenced the lives of the African Americans in the American society. First, he was the first African American to play professional baseball in a multiracial setting (Purvis, 1999). According to historical information available about Jackie Robinson, he started his sporting career while he was studying at John Muir High School thanks to valuable encouragement from his teachers and elder brother (Purvis, 1999).

His success in sporting activities continued when he joined Pasadena junior college and later University of California Los Angeles in 1939. As an expression of his influence in the sporting world, Jackie Robinson went in record as the first person let alone an African-American ever to win varsity letters in his four major sports basketball, baseball, track, and football later in 1939 (Aaron, 1999). By this, he proved to the American community that the black American community is marked with skills and talents just like the whites.

By becoming the first African American to play professional baseball in a multiracial setting, Jackie Robinson proved to the American community that ability is not determined by skin color (Henry  Dorinson, 1998). True to the word, the 1940s were marked with eminent acts of racial discrimination in the American society. Indeed, sports competitions during this time in history were based on color as their used to be Negro leagues and those for the white (Aaron, 1999). However, despite segregation, Jackie Robinson was determined to take up position as a player in Brooklyn Dodgers, a white dominated team. The ultimate success of Jackie Robinson as the best baseball player of the time is simply due to anti-racial attitude. Despite the eminent racial tension and discrimination he received from his team players as well as fans in the Brooklyn Dodgers club, he remained a pivotal tool in overseeing the success of the club (Simon, 2002). This attitude is to be thanked for the increased involvement of African Americans in multiracial sports as his influence led to the implementation a desegregation policy in sports.

By leaving sports to join in the army during the Second World War, Jackie Robinson was symbolic of the importance of international security for the sustainable social and economic development of the American community (Purvis, 1999). According to statistics on Jackie Robinson success, it is evidently clear that he enjoyed remarkable success in sport activities. However, despite of the fame sports had brought to him, he voluntarily decided to join the military. Still, this move was not his prior knowledge of the mistreatment the African Americans serving in the military faced. In fact, this amounts to nothing less than an expression of patriotism by Jackie Robinson.

Another achievement is that he never wanted to be segregated against simply for being a black. This is best evident when he lost his military job after refusing to succumb to racial discriminative order by a driver dictating him to sit at the back seats of the bus (Warmund  Dorinson, 1998). Discrimination against the African Americans many a times went unquestioned. However, Jackie Robinson stood out strongly to defend his reason for not succumbing to the drivers dictate on his sitting position in a military bus (Warmund  Dorinson, 1998). Other incidences where Jackie stood for the rights of African Americans as human beings is when, during his college education, Robinson was arrested after disputing the detention of a black by the police. According to some social analysts, such courage by Jackie Robinson is seen as having played a pivotal role in triggering the civil rights movement which saw the recognition of the rights of the black American community (Warmund  Dorinson, 1998).

Still, according to available information on the social responsibilities that Jackie Robinson engaged in, it is clear that he always wanted to see an improvement in the social and economic standards of the black
American community (Aaron, 1999). After retiring from baseball in early 1957, Jackie Robinson engaged in many social activities which served to promote the dignity of the black American community (Aaron, 1999). He served as the vice president or personnel at Chock full oNuts between 1957 and 1964, making him the first African American to hold such a position in a major American corporation. In an expression of his desire to ensure economic prosperity for the African Americans, Jackie participated in the chaired the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples (NAACP) million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive of 1957 (Henry, 1997).
Among the many other initiatives by Jackie for helping the African Americans include his contribution towards the opening of the Freedom National Bank in Harlem which was owned and operated by the African Americans (Warmund  Dorinson, 1998). He in 1970 established a construction company in purpose for constructing houses for the economically challenged members of the American community (Warmund  Dorinson, 1998). Just to be appreciated here is the fact that during that time, the black community in America was perceived as being of lesser value both socially and economically. This meant poor living conditions thanks to limited government and societal support.

Jackie Robinson was an influential political figure who spent most of his resources in fighting for desegregation policies in America (Aaron, 1999). He acted as a major supporter of Richard Nixon during the 1960 presidential. Even after losing in the election to John F. Kennedy, Jackie praised President Kennedy for his stand on the question of racial segregation. In 1964, he became a major support of Rockefeller as well as serving as a special assistant for the community in New York in 1966 (Aaron, 1999). Just to be stated here is the fact that Jackie Robinson was a strong critic of drug abuse among the American people, a factor that confirms his great wish for having sustainable social coexistence in the American community (Aaron, 1999).

Therefore, it is logical to conclude that the impact of Jackie Robinson in the American community will leave to be appreciated by generations to come. Through him the African American found their noble acceptance in the American society. Thus, Jackie Robinson will remain a hero in the athletic world but a determined patriot of the American nation, may God bless his soul.

The African-American Civil rights movement refers to the reform movements in the United States aimed at outlawing racial discrimination against the African Americans and restoring suffrage in southern states. Some of the main aims of the civil rights movements were racial dignity, economic and political self sufficiency, and freedom from oppression by white Americans. Some of the organizations that were active in the civil rights movement include NAACP, SNCC, CORE and SCLC. The struggle was not only about just civil rights, but also about fundamental issues of freedom, respect, dignity and economic and social equality. 
In the United States, there were particular aspects of civil rights movements that were the most important throughout the American history this was performed by the black race in Georgia in the southern part for the full movement and the struggle the equality in all races. From the past the black community had once demonstrated and protested in many ways that include strikes and mass demonstrations. In the late times of the World War 2 the black community had been their vote, treated with ongoing discrimination and segregated in most aspects of life. In spite of all these, the new issue of race relations was brought forward.
   
During the civil rights movement, the ordinary men and women came together to challenge the nation to utilize its founding values of justice, liberty, life, and the need for happiness to its people regardless of the color. From the south all people from different social classes, educations levels, and religions came together to practice the principles of nonviolence, civil action and democracy.
 
The struggle for the civil rights movement had started long before the southern civil rights movement hit first the American news in the years 1950s and 1960s. Here, the leaders of the community mainly from the Atlanta and Savanna were against the isolation of the transport meant for the public and the resistance to the white domination to the state house even when there are times of executions and oppression (Mark, 2000, p. 23). A better example for this demonstration is by the washerwomen of Atlanta that came together to protest for better pay.
   
When the century was about to be over, the political leaders and the bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal supported these movements by the backto-Africa programmes. Therefore, as a result of this the black community of the Georgians benefited from the provision of the social institutions, churches and schools that were located at their remote locations. After the World War 2, there was a major change in the civil rights struggle in Georgia. Due to the war there were some rise in the major economic changes that included industrialization, urbanization, and the decrease in the power of the planter elite. The black veterans faced the white supremacy and performed some riots in the army bases. The African American leaders were provided for a better opportunity to press for the racial change in the southern part of America as a result of the political turmoil of the World War 2 when the US fought for the democracy in Europe.
   
In the America, there were a number of activists that helped in the fight for the civil rights of other African-Americans. These included, Jefferson Franklin Long, Alonzo Herndon, Joseph E. Lowery, Hosea Williams, Ralph David Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Martin Luther King Junior and Andrew Jackson Young among others. These are among the people who managed to fight for the civil rights of the African-Americans people in the history of Georgia.
For the case study of this research paper, we are going to give a wider perspective on one civil rights activists and his role in the fight for the civil rights of the African-Americans. He is Martin Luther king, Jr.
   
Martin was born on January 15, 1929 and was one of the Americas leading civil rights activists. He joined the civil rights movement, educating black activists and white pacifists in non violent protest tactics. Surrounded by fear, loathing and constant FBI surveillance, king remained dedicated to his cause. Under his influence, different organizations sprang up, practicing non violent direct action such as sit inns, freedom rides and boycotts.
   
There are several aspects of the civil rights movements in Georgia these are those actions that these civil rights movements engaged themselves in, in the fight for civil freedom. For instance, on Thursday, December 1, 1955, Rosa parks refused to give up her seat on a Birmingham bus, setting a chain of events that catapulted King to world fame. Several groups within Montgomerys black community decided to take action against segregated sating on the city buses. This was a situation where the black were discriminated against in the city buses as they were expected to seat on the back seats of the bus or stand up leaving seats for the pure white. The NAACP, the womens political council, the Baptist Ministers Conference and the citys African Methodist Episcopal (AME), Zionist ministers united with the community to organize a bus boycott. After a successful beginning of the boycott on Monday, the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) came into being that afternoon, and Martin Luther King accepted the presidency. His oratory at that evenings mass meeting roused the crowds enthusiasm, and the boycott continued. It took 381 days of struggle to bring the boycott to a successful conclusion.
   
As MIA leader, Martin King became the focus of the white hatred. On the afternoon of January 26th, King was arrested for the first time, spending some time in jail before being released. About midnight he was awakened by a hate phone call. As he sat thinking the dangers of his family, he had his first profound religious experience.
   
In April, the U.S Supreme court struck down laws requiring bus segregation. Montgomerys mayor refused to yield. After long legal procedures, the supreme courts order to end bus segregation was served in Montgomery on Thursday, December 20, 1956. Despite jeopardized jobs, intimidation by the Ku Klux Klan, police harassment, and bombings, the success of the boycott became apparent when Martin King and several allies boarded a public bus in front of Kings home on December 21, 1956.
   
Martin King was in Atlanta when five bombings went off at parsonages and churches in Montgomery in the early morning of January 10, 1957. On this date, a two day meeting was scheduled to begin in Ebenezer Baptist Church to lay out plans to create an organization to maintain the momentum of the movement for change throughout Georgia. Martin King returned to Montgomery to inspect the bomb damage and was present for only final hours of the meeting. In a follow up meeting in New Orleans on February 14, the group adopted the name Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and elected Martin as the president. Martin Luther made his first trip abroad to attend the independence ceremonies in Ghana on March 5, 1958. In June, King received the NAACPs Springam medal for his leadership.
   
King and his organization became increasingly estranged from the NAACPs Roy Wilkins, who feared the effect of another mass black organization on the NAACPs branches in the south and also disapproved of the SCLCs call for direct action. Nonetheless, King pressed forward and the SCLCs plans for a voter registration drive beginning in 1958 went forward. In need of a capable organizer at the Atlanta office, the SCLCs first choice was Bayard Rustin, who was a very effective worker but also vulnerable to smears because of his homosexuality, he did find a role at SCLC in a less visible position. Ella Baker came to Atlanta and took Rustins position and shouldered much of the organizational work for the SCLC. In spite of her efforts, the 1958 voter registration drive failed to attract much tension, and the SCLC seemed on the point of disappearing.
   
From the work of writing the book on the Montgomery boycott, Stride Towards Freedom, he benefited from the very frank criticism of white New York lawyer Stanley D. Levinson, who became one of kings most trusted advisors. Levinson was also a key factor in the FBIs later surveillance of the King, there allegations of a connection between the Levinson and the communist party that formed one of the legal bases for wiretaps of kings telephone communication.
   
In June of 1958, King joined A. Philip Randolph, Roy Wilkins, and National Urban league leader Lester B. Granger in an unsatisfactorily meeting with president Dwight D. Eisenhower. In September King was again arrested in Montgomery as he tried to enter a court room. King decided to serve a 14-day jail sentence for refusing to obey an officer rather than paying a fine of  14. He avoided jail time however, as police commissioner paid the fine to avoid the publicity King would have garnered. After this police incident, while at a book signing, King was stabbed by a deranged woman.
   
Another aspect of Civil rights movement in Georgia was the Sit-ins. The student activism provided the spark that gave new life to the civil rights movement. On February 1, 1960, four students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical college, demanded a service at a Woolworth lunch counter in Greensboro and continued to sit after their demands were refused. The sit-ins spread rapidly across the south and in Georgia it was no exception. The first contact between the students and the SCLC occurred on February 16, 1960 as king delivered a well-received speech at a meeting held in Durham to coordinate more sit-ins. The ongoing legal procedures would be a matter of great concern to king until an all-white jury returned a verdict of not guilty on May 28, after a three day trial.

On October 2, 1960, King reluctantly joined a renewal of sit-ins at Richs Department store in Atlanta. He was arrested and spent his first night ever in jail. A compromise freed all participants except the King, who was held as being in violation of the terms of probation for an earlier traffic ticket. Sentenced to four month term prison, he was taken to state prison at Reidsville, Georgia. Continued legal efforts secured Kings release after eight days in jail. In spite of his private reservations, King spoke in favor of a compromise desegregation in Alabama, and even in Georgia, and won the support of student organizers, who had vociferously labeled the plan a sell out.
   
Apart from the sit-ins, its evidently clear that another aspect of the civil rights movements in Georgia was the fact that the movements spoke directly ill of the segregation rights in Georgia, they feared no repercussions, but rebuked the laws of segregation in America and more precisely in Georgia, this was a motivation of the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. he continued a heavy speaking program, bringing in sizable amounts of money to finance SCLC. In August SCLC joined SNCC, the NAACP, the National Urban League, and CORE in establishing the Voter Education program (VEP). Over the years, considerable friction surfaced between the VEP and SCLC over the SCLCs handling of money and its lackluster efforts in some areas. The leading organization of black Baptists also attacked King at this time. Under its leader, Joseph H. Jackson, the National Baptist Convention opposed the Sit-ins.
   
In the process of trying to increase the local leaders, the volunteers of SNCC made their residents on the black belt. This was because the place was far away from the attention from the journalists that covered the civil rights movement. Due to this many of the students were shot and the student leaders were charged with insurrection in Americus. This was a crime that was considered to have carried a death penalty. The students were though released but the felicity and the strength of the supremacists economy meat that the work that was done by the SNNC was only gradual and for the long term. In the long run, some of the leaders like Sherrod finally came to make the region a permanent residence for their stay.
   
The struggle for the civil rights did not come to a stop when there was the passing of the federal civil rights legislation in 1964 and in the year 1965.  This legislation addressed the problems that faced the black community in a far much less extent, the issues of unemployment, the squalid housing and the police brutality were less addressed. Riots arose in the state of Atlanta in 1970 this led to the torture and murder of a black teenager in the city jail. In the same year, a very large riot occurred in Georgia where that led to adverse effects.
   
A group of SNCC workers became sympathetic to the separation of the black power and sought to organize a project that was motivated to help the poor. This was one of the motivations that led to the matching of the black leaders to warn the back visitors not to the sun go down on their heads. More generally, there was an accompaniment of the new phrase that was talking about the Georgias struggle for the racial discrimination. This led to the enforcement of the integration by many cities.
   
By 1980 the Georgians still led by having the largest number of protestors but had less than 10 percent of those selected in office as the officials of the state. However, there was some small identifiable success in the election of some of their officials such as Maynard Jackson as the Mayor in 1973 who was the first black congressman from Georgia. On the part of education there was the hastening of the integration of the schools and the protection of the jobs for the senior black teachers.
   
There was the one of the most important participants of the civil rights movement in the years 1950s and 1960s called the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. This organization was based in Atlanta though its leaders were based in Georgia. This party originated in the mid-twenties when the blacks who were returning from the world war were did not accept the injustices at home as they fought abroad. Dr. King after discussion with Bayard Rustin and other advisors then met at Atlanta together with 60 Black ministers across the south for a discussion that was based on the formation of a permanent organization that took lead in the protest against the isolation and be able to give some mutual aid in the time of struggle. This organization was governed by the election Board.
   
Georgia had been considered as the capital of the American south the black activists that were from this community were far from the middle class. About half of the black men in the city were the laborers and about 70 percent of the women were domestics. At around the beginning of 1960s the average black families were earning less than half of the average white family. The black race was discriminated by the white community in the work place. This led to the black workers feeling that they denied their rights and many fought so hard during the civil rights movements. With the support of veteran civil rights leaders and white Leftist sympathizers, Atlantas black workers built a movement in hopes of eliminating disparate treatment and unequal pay.
   
A series of strikes among black workers with similar grievances was not spontaneous during an examination of the period that led to the 1972 reveals in this phenomenon. The evolution of the social and political climate led to the sentiment to these actions. The prevailing political dialogue was based particularly to a race that related to economic disparity. Due to this there was an eruption of strikes, the black workers that were endured with racism and inequality conditions, interacted with a network for the protests geared towards the white supremacy.
   
Through the inspiration of Martin Luther, a small group in the southern America liberals contributed to the fight for the civil rights. An example is one of the novelists in Georgia known as Lillian Smith who spoke about the segregation that were taking place at those times. She also praised those who were not novelists of their movement in one of her books called our faces, our worlds. Another activists was Pauley who was against the racial discrimination in the year 1940s, this is the time that she joined the Georgia League of voters. After this moment, she worked for Georgia Council on Human Relations as an executive director this is the time that she tried to reduce the racial discrimination by encouraging interaction in the organization.
Another aspect of the Civil rights movements is the Atlanta learning institutions. The universities in Atlanta, Georgia, also participated in the civil rights movement in the southern America. There was a students organization that participated highly in the protests called the Atlanta University Center (AUC). It played a vital role in the citys vital rights activities. The student leaders led the political implications and some demonstrations in the southern American to show their concern about the civil rights. Among the things that were done, the students directed to an action that had an intention of bringing an objective lesson to the country.  It is clear that they got influences from Martin Luther King, Jr.

As normal and expected peaceful protestors of the black community who were accelerated by the crowds that jeered them, opposed the image that was created by Hartsfield that stated that the city was too busy to be hated. At that time, they led to an invitation of the presidential candidate, John Kennedy to explain the reason for the arrest of Dr. King, though he did explain through the phone.

In the Christmas season, the black community boycotted from doing work therefore leading to a financial loss that was experienced thus leading to the economic down fall in the city of Georgia. On the other hand, the students had made an attempt to file a law suit to be able to bring to an end to the segregation and racial discrimination in all the public and also the recreational facilities in the city of Atlanta, this took place in the year 1961 on May. This led to an action being taken by the white merchants desegregating their restaurants and also their lunch centers. It also led to the desegregation of the citys public pools and parks that was ordered by the federal district court, this happened in the year 1962.

Another aspect that was evident of the civil rights movements in the Georgia is the fact that schools were segregated from the black community this led to a rise in the concern by the political leaders. There were some organizations that were on the fore front for the mass protest. Organizations such as the NAACP, the Help Our Public Education (HOPE), and the Organization Assisting Schools (OASIS) stated to find ways in which the isolation was to be minimized so that the public schools will stay open for the benefit of all. They went further to stimulate mass resistance and finally the closing of t he segregated schools instead of integrating them. 

We can therefore conclude that, the particular aspects of civil rights movements in Georgia included the actions of students, political activists, religious leaders and scholars for instance lawyers. Some of the practices they engaged themselves in as discussed above are the include demonstrations and boycotts sit-ins and go slows publicly rebuking segregation laws in Georgia formation of political movements and parties and most importantly coming together as a group to fight for the rights of the black people.

Workplace discrimination is also referred to as employment discrimination. This kind of discrimination is observed during hiring, promotions, teaming, job assignments, compensations and terminations. This paper will cover different kinds of workplace discriminations observed at workplaces along with laws that prohibit them.
Introduction
Employment discrimination covers various kinds of harassments, psychological, verbal and physical. Many jurisdictions have designed certain laws against employment discrimination, specifically for protected categories, which encompass certain traits that shall be covered in coming sections. Laws are also designed that prohibit discriminations against certain kinds of groups that may include certain racial ethnicities.
Certain workplaces are known where discrimination is illegal, even then these places are known for subtler forms of discriminations, as wage discrimination and certain requirements with incongruent impacts on certain groups. On the other hand, employees retaliating against workplace discrimination face serious consequences in the form of punishments for violations of workplace rules set by higher authorities. Prejudice and ignorance is known to be the main cause of discrimination (Dealing with Discrimination in the Workplace, n.d).
Discriminations, if they can take place during hiring processes, can be an integral part during work in workplaces. If employer has hindered any kinds of discriminations during the process of hiring than there are equal chances for discriminations to take place after hiring based on colleagues prejudices. Following graph shows rates of discrimination globally in different countries.

Workplace discriminations on a global scale
Source  HYPERLINK httpnitawriter.wordpress.com20080304job-discrimination-in-the-world httpnitawriter.wordpress.com20080304job-discrimination-in-the-world
In addition to this, research has been conducted that shows rakings of countries for discriminations face by people while applying for a job.

Discriminations While Applying For a Job, Globally
Source httpnitawriter.wordpress.com20080304job-discrimination-in-the-world
India as an Example
Many people feel more discriminated while applying for jobs as compared to after being hired. But in these cases there are differences that occur between countries. India is an example, where people feel lesser discriminated while applying for jobs as compared to after being hired.

Discriminations at different stages globally
Source httpnitawriter.wordpress.com20080304job-discrimination-in-the-world
Figure is representative of the fact that India rates fifth in discriminations faced by people while they apply for jobs and it ranks second in discrimination rates being faced at workplaces after being hired. Thereby these higher rates in India suggests that people are upset and frustrated by an ongoing policy of being discriminated, not being promoted or employed, based on certain reasons.
Statistics have suggested that more than 80 employees in Punjab, 70 from the state of Gujarat while 58 people from Karnataka have complained of being discriminated at work and while applying for jobs. It is known that lower and upper caste systems are strictly followed in India, based on which, at many workplaces, much lower salaries are offered to people belonging to lower castes. Thereby, there is a need to realize that such discrimination is illegal and in the presence of experienced and skilled persons belonging to lower castes, lesser experienced people belonging to upper castes should not be selected just because of the fact that they are from upper castes, as it would be just to give people from lower caste a chance to prove themselves.
Protected Categories of Employment Discrimination
Jurisdictions and laws have been designed that prohibit discriminations against sex and gender, pregnancy, race and ethnicity, religion, political affiliation, language abilities, cultural backgrounds, citizenships, sexual orientation, age, marital status, military veteran status and military discharge status. From these categories, only few and most important ones will be covered in the following sections.
Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination has been a well-known fact in the modern global job market and it is not limited to any particular country. Moreover, contrary findings have been seen in case of women being on a receivers end. Being in an urban setting, men are also facing the same level of discrimination. John Douglas who has been in advertising industry since a decade adds that he has faced discrimination in terms of fair sex whenever there are opportunities of vertical movement. As a client service person, he holds enormous success loaded track, he still feels that newcomers having lesser experiences gain more advantages ahead of him, for some particular reasons which are more obvious. He has added that there is a general thought and ideology in particular fields, as marketing, advertising and most importantly public relations. These fields are known to hire females even in the presence of highly skilled and talented males. These views are also reflected in case of airlines, hospitalitylodging businesses and banking sectors. Numerous explanations for this gender gap have been given with one referring to gender discrimination in labor market. Additionally, these are also based on human capital differences in males and females, especially education. However, this is one perspective of employment based sex discrimination (Dealing with Discrimination in the Workplace, n.d).
Gregory, (2003) argued that although there are certain rules in workplaces to prevent sexual discrimination but still it is rampant. Many differences are seen in men and women when it comes to incomes, employment rates and wide ranges of occupations. As compared to men, salary of women is 70 to 88 lesser even if variables as job position, tenure levels, educational levels and age are considered. A report by Catalyst released in 2005 mentioned that only one in eight women were CEOs as mentioned in Fortune 500, while only nine women were having high paid positions in Fortune 500-1000. Thereby as compared to men, women are stuck in low paid jobs.
On the other hand, it has been observed at various workplaces that many employees receive unwelcomed sexual attention from other employees. This kind of discrimination is referred to as sexual harassment and many laws address this kind of discrimination including rude remarks, and unwanted physical contact. Here, men can be the victims in addition to women (Understanding Workplace Discrimination, n.d).
Finland as an Example
Job sectors differ mostly in case of threats and physical violence along with bullying being faced by employees. Particular attention is required by workplaces that are more dominated by females and are known to have higher ratios of bullying, physical violence and incidents of violence. These incidents have been especially reported in countries as Finland. In the year of 2005, it was reported that one in five women faced threat of physical violence or violence itself in a direct manner since the past 12 months. These conditions are seen to be worse in government sectors and it has been reported that as compared to men, women have faced twice as much of violence. Figure below is an evidence of the fact that every third employee within the government sector faces violence.

Reports of threats and physical violence in Finnish government sector in 2005
Source httpwww.eurofound.europa.euewcosurveysFI0603SR01FI0603SR01_6.htm
Age Discrimination
Gregory, (2001) argues that job seekers in an increasing number are now frustrated with age discrimination starting from early thirties. It has been observed that some industries in the global market do not consider hiring people aging over forty. Thereby this issue has been addressed by certain laws that prohibit this kind of discrimination in workplaces. There are obvious reasons given by certain industries for not hiring older employees. It is a well know fact that older and aged employees are more skilled and experienced as compared to younger graduates, being hired preferably. Industries argue that older and experienced the applicants, higher are the demands for pays, salary and facilities as compared to younger graduates. Secondly, knowledge skills that aged applicants have are outdated and not in accordance to modern gadget based age (Is It Legal to Specifically Request a Male or Female, or Younger or Older Temp, n.d).
Statistics show that more than 16 million Americans aged over 50 are looking for employment. Only 4 of older people are finding jobs on an annual basis. Older Americans make up 10 of American workforce and account for 20 of job output only.
Laws that prohibit age-based discrimination include Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA). This law protect s applicants aging 40 or above from being discriminated in hiring, promotion, discharging, compensations, facilities and privileges of employment (Avoid Age Discrimination in the Workplace, n.d).
Discrimination Based On Medical Condition
Among many medical conditions, most common medical conditions seen in working employees is cancer. Many employees are seen working during and after their treatments as cancer is not a contagious disease. Knowing this globally understood fact, discrimination is faced by people suffering from cancer, at work. These people return to work even in unhealthy conditions for reasons as additional financial burdens as costs of treatments along with financial resources needed for living and daily life necessities.
As in case of other kinds of discriminations, this kind of discrimination is encompassed under Americans with Disabilities Act and the Family Medical Leave Act of 1993. If an employee informs his or her employer regarding particular medical condition, this law comes into action in case of any discrimination. People at workplace face subtle discriminations during or after cancer treatments. Employers point out decrease in performance and outputs because of lack of concentration and stress. In addition, discriminations are also faced in case of promotions and transfers. Moreover, colleagues at work might think of it as an added responsibility on them, as performance level has to be maintained. In addition to this, refusal to job openings and demotion is also faced commonly. In some cases, it has been observed that if requested, these employees do not get quicker responses from higher authorities for taking some time off from work till treatment concludes.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC). These laws are against discriminations in case of any disability, which may be perceived, historical or recent. This law requires that employers make reasonable accommodations in workplaces for qualified people with disabilities. 
Racial Discrimination
Any conscious or unconscious action or an attitude that tries to subordinate an individual based on his or her race is defined as racial discrimination. It has been added by the United States Civil Rights Commission that this kind of discrimination can be seen in an organizational, individual or an institutional level. It is considered as quiet an unfortunate event that in 2007, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission received almost 31,000 complaints against racial discrimination. Just because of supposed taxonomic differences, governments and higher authorities clearly rule against discriminations. These kinds of discriminations are based on certain ideologies that races differ in intelligence, intellect, morality as well as sexuality.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964has provided lawful protection against any racial discrimination observed in workplaces. This law promises to fight against any denials to equal opportunities to work, promotion, termination, facilities and employment based privileges, based on race and ethnicities. This law also prohibits any stereotypic discrimination. Any rules and regulations being followed within the organizations that deny equal opportunity rights to people and couples married or engaged with people belonging to different ethnicities are considered illegal under this law. All races and ethnicities have been protected under this law.
It has been argued by Crosby, Stockdale, and Ropp, (2007) that this law has highlighted certain employment situations under which racial discrimination is not allowed. These situations include recruitment, advancements and progress, work environments, rules and regulation in the workplace, classification in accordance to designations of employees and retaliation by employees. Recruitments and advancements require that all requirements of a job must be applicable on all employees uniformly. For affirmative action compliance, some employers may inquire about racial information but it is required that this information is kept private and use of such information for any future discrimination is not allowed. Racial information is not to be used in making biased decisions during hiring. If hired, prohibition has been marked on all kinds of derogatory comments, slurs, physical and verbal abuse based on race and ethnicity. This law also suggests that employees, because of their ethnicities and race, cannot be forced to work in a specific department without their will and consent, neither can they be hidden from customer contacts.


Gay And Lesbian Discrimination
It has been argued by Newton, (2009) that heated arguments have highlighted that gay and lesbians are facing employment discrimination at workplaces. Thereby laws are needed that address gays and lesbian rights. Facts speak for themselves and it has been seen that in 34 American states, gays and lesbians are simply fired after higher authorities learn about their sexual orientation. 85 of Americans believe that job discrimination based on sexual orientation is unjust while 60 of Americans want to see this case being fought at federal level. Since 1996, on jurisdiction level, Employment Non-Discrimination Act has been proposed several times ending up in ruins. Research has been conducted on over 500 Americans concluding that disclosing sexual orientation in workplaces always has negative impacts on career and workplace experiences. In this case, research has highlighted associated levels of fear of sexual orientation being disclosed. It is argued that people fearing negative consequences of their sexual orientation on work, received lesser job promotions and faced more stress as compared to people who feared less. Thereby this fear is associated with psychological outputs. Thereby there is a link of psychological strain with work output and work linked depression and irritation.
Contrarily, there are healthier environments that accept all sexual rights and people belonging to different orientations and these environments have lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees. Research shows that 25 to 66 of gay and lesbian workers are discriminated at work while a 37 of workers were only discriminated because they were thought to be of gay or lesbian orientation. Physical harassment was faced by a 10 of workers, 22 of these workers were verbally harassed and 31 were terminated from their jobs. Additional facts have shown that gay men because of being harassed and discriminated at work earn 23 lesser than married counterparts.
In 2004, a survey was conducted by University of New Hampshire (UNH) Whittemore School of Business and Economics, including 91000 heterosexuals and homosexual couples. It was found out that gay men, even being in management and blue collar jobs make less money as compared to married men in the same designations. This research has studied and included 10 jobs populated with gay and homosexual men, it has been seen that in heterosexual men dominated jobs, gays, and lesbians face the most discrimination. Along with blue collar and management jobs, these include construction, building, grounds cleaning, and maintenance.
Another important finding is that gays face lesser discrimination as compared to heterosexual women. The reason is a perception that gays are much more career focused as compared to heterosexual women. It is highlighted by arguing that 49 heterosexual women bear children as compared to 18 of gays and lesbians. Thereby it is perceived that lesbians and gays have a stronger attachment with workforce as compared to heterosexual women.
Coming to the fact, employers and higher authorities in organizations disapprove of gays and lesbian attitudes thereby their hiring is lesser as it is perceived that customers do not wish to interact with homosexuals. An ideology of lesser productivity is also associated with the same as it is a well known fact that gays and lesbians contract HIVAIDS that can affect work productivity of the worker thereby effecting work output. Thereby within these workplaces, if one group is perceived to be lesser productive than individuals belonging to this groups will be discriminated by receiving lesser wage offers, employment benefits and privileges and promotion.
Religious Discrimination
It is mentioned by Vickers, (2008) that employment decisions are not to be made based on an employees religion. Religions of certain or all employees can be taken into account when workplace decisions are to be made. This is because of the fact that religious is not just a characteristic it encompasses a specific set of beliefs and ideologies. Thereby law states that no person is to be discriminated based on his or her religion. Additional religious allowances should be provided to employees that include religious special occasions which in some cases require an off.
Protection from these kinds of discrimination is provided by The Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulationspassed in 2003. These laws not only provide protection to employees but to students as well. Any kind of verbal and physical abuse and harassments are covered in these laws. Within workplaces, no employee is to be promoted or demoted based on his religion or religious beliefs. Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) requirement, however in this case, is an exception. Some jobs require people belonging to certain specific religions as priests of church, only in these cases, religion is an important part of the hiring criteria.
Within workplaces, employees are to be given freedom to express their religious views but this should not exceed its limits within reasons. For instance, employees should not be given freedom to such an extent that they start wearing religious dresses in office other than the dress code assigned.
Employers and higher authorities in workplaces are thereby in a need to be aware of laws and jurisdictions that prohibit discriminations based on race, gender, medical conditions, religion and sexual orientation.
Conclusion
Sex, sexual orientation, religion and race are not chosen by a person thereby employers have no rights or authority to choose and give more privileges to a person based on his race or religion. In the same way, diseases and medical conditions are not called upon thereby discriminations based on these factors is considered unjust by laws.

Without doubt, the name Muhammad Ali has become synonymous with professional boxing. In relation to this, any individual, even those with minimal knowledge of the sport, would be able to quickly point out the iconic status of Muhammad Ali. However, even though it is rather common to hear of his accomplishments throughout his boxing career, it is still a worthwhile endeavor to learn more about The Greatest. In this sense, in this research paper, the humble beginnings of Muhammad Ali would be delineated in sufficient detail. The most important events throughout the early points in his career would be highlighted as well. Since establishing a holistic view of Muhammad Alis life and career is the main focus of this scholarly pursuit, it is then essential to discuss the highlights of his career. Of course, details regarding the occurrences in Alis life after his career would be explained. In particular, such would encompass his health and his most recent and notable public activities. Indeed, gaining a better understanding of Muhammad Ali, as a person and as an athlete, requires a holistic view rather than one that is limited to his career.  

Roots and Changes  
Before being known in the ring and throughout the world as Muhammad Ali, the great boxer was once referred to as Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. such a name was given to him by his parents in 1942, upon being born in Louisville, Kentucky (Schulman, 2005). As one may expect, being born in the aforesaid point in American history is considerably different from existing in modern day society. Specifically, segregating the population according to color or race was still a part of life during the 1940s in addition to such a point of concern, Alis family is also at a disadvantage in terms of financial capability albeit still being able to live a decent and Christ-centered way of life (Schulman, 2005). Interestingly, a certain sequence of events has allowed Ali to witness the sport that he would soon excel in and represent globally. At twelve years of age, Ali was given a bike by his parents as a gift which was stolen during one of his trips to the market realizing the need to report the theft to the police, Ali was suggested to converse with Joe Martin who is both a police officer and a boxing coach (Schulman, 2005). Expectedly, their meeting would be considered as Alis first experiences in the world of boxing. Due to his efforts, he was able to capture a gold medal at the 1960 Olympics prior to even entering a professional career (Schulman, 2005). 
   
Muhammad Alis training and entry into professional boxing was made possible through a combination of dedication and character. As trained by Angelo Dundee, Ali continuously won throughout the early parts of his professional career interestingly, Ali knew gaining the attention of promoters, which he did through predictions and poems, was also necessary if his career would be furthered (Savage, 2007). Eventually, Ali was given the chance to compete against the heavyweight champion and won. In fact, in addition to defeating the champion, Sonny Liston, for the title he also revealed a significant change in his life after the match after having shifted to Islam as his religion, Cassius Clay Jr. became known as Muhammad Ali (Savage, 2007). Of course, such a change was considered as controversial and challenges to his right of being the champion manifested. In response, Ali maintained a firm stance pertaining to his worthiness and also maintained a distinct unwillingness to join the Vietnam War leading to a three year suspension (Savage, 2007).    

The Greatest, Fame and Success 
After being separated from boxing for years due to his stance about the war, Ali was eventually given the chance to fight once more of course, the changing views of the public regarding the validity and necessity of the Vietnam War was a considerable aid to Ali (Ezra, 2009). As a matter of fact, it would be most appropriate to state that Alis return to boxing has been the vital opportunity throughout his career which established him as a legendary figure in more than one aspect. As noted beforehand, Ali became recognized as a foremost figure in society due to his firm beliefs regarding the war hence, not only did the public perceive Ali in a significantly positive manner but the local government as well as award giving groups recognized Alis character as well (Ezra, 2009). As expected, the growing interest and high regard about Ali also translated into favorable outcomes for his boxing matches. Particularly, the sales of his bouts have never been placed into question. A most notable example of such popularity would be the economic success of his bout against Quarry no longer did the audience view Ali as a boxer but he has also been regarded as a symbol of his African-America descent and a champion of civil rights as proven by his Martin Luther King Award (Ezra, 2009). Despite being regarded as a champion of society, Muhammad Ali still understandably longed to once again be called the heavyweight champion in professional boxing.
   
Throughout his pursuit to regain the title, Ali fought against Joe Frazier which arguably one of the greatest highlights of his career. Despite being defeated by Frazier in their first bout, the recognition of Alis will and perseverance in addition to the amount of the purse still made him a winner despite the loss, Ali was soon able to regain his title from George Foreman at a championship match in Zaire (Ezra, 2009). While it may seem that regaining the title may have signified as slower pace or progress for Ali and his career, in reality the opposite occurred. Ali and Fraziers third fight in Manila to settle a tie, is considered to be the most historic night in boxing history and arguably has been the highest grossing event for the professional sport as well in which Ali came on top afterwards, losing and regaining the title from Leon Spinks making him a three time champion, Ali retired from boxing (Ezra, 2009). While some may argue that the retirement was short lived, as Ali eventually came back, it must be emphasized that his return was mainly a single bout wherein Ali did not achieve success. Specifically, his comeback fight with Larry Holmes in 1980 was more of an emotional spectacle than a professional endeavor (Ezra, 2009).

Looking Back and Facing the Present  
Problems surfaced after Alis boxing career came to a close. The most pressing of such being health related. To further expound, Ali was diagnosed with a neural or brain-based disorder known as Parkinsons Syndrome while alleviating the symptoms and effects of the medical condition, a complete cure has not yet been established (Schulman, 2005). Aside from the aforesaid problem, financial concerns manifested as well. Particularly, Ali had lost a considerable amount of money due to his willingness to give to charity and even more was lost due to failed investments (Schulman, 2005). Regardless, Ali was expectedly able to survive and surmount such challenges through the support of his fourth wife Lonnie Williams. Furthermore, his daughter also gained inspiration from her fathers unparalleled boxing career. Laila Ali, his and Veronica Porsches daughter, became a successful boxer as well, being able to capture a title early in her career (Schulman, 2005). Without doubt, the popularity and acknowledgement of Alis career and pursuits throughout his life continues even after he has retired for decades. To further highlight such a point, it is essential to note that Muhammad Ali has recently been given the Medal of Freedom by then President George Bush in 2005 (New York Times, 2005).
   
Throughout the discussion, it becomes apparent that Muhammad Ali would not be suitably and fairly represented by his in-ring accomplishments alone. Instead of focusing upon the number of times wherein he fought for the heavyweight title either as a champion or as a challenger, one must realize that Ali is a significant symbol or perseverance and faith, while maintaining a realistic perspective. From Alis firm decision not to support the war to his triumphant return and ensuing global popularity, Ali may be regarded as a symbol of success. Therefore, it really is a rewarding pursuit to holistically look into the life and career of legends such as Ali, as novel realizations and perspectives about an icon may arise.