African-American Studies

English language is naturally considered to be one of the oldest languages today. It is a language not only use in England but also in dominions and colonies incorporated in the British Empire. The language is spoken by over 400 million people around the world. In a recent survey conducted, English-speaking people comprise about one tenth of the worlds population. However, it is not the largest spoken language in the world. The Chinese hold the most number of people speaking their language (Mandarin) with about 650 million people (Wells, 123).
   
Moreover, the significance of English language is not alone a subject of numbers or territory it also based on the significance of the people who speak it. The significance of a language is certainly incorporated in the mind of the world with the political role participated by the countries using it and their authority in the international affairs. Today, the English language is considered to be the mother language of languages. It is combined with political authority, economic reliability, commercial activity, social welfare, scientific research and cultural contributions to civilization that give remarkable support to its numerical superiority (Smith, 5).
History of English Language
   
Historically, the English language begins in the British Isles, where the language eventually settled and expanded. During the time when the English language was spoken in Europe, it was know as the pre-Old English, for it was only after the English separated themselves from their Germanic cousins. English language settles with the influx of three Germanic tribes who overrun Britain during the 5th century AD (Algeo, 2005).  These tribes were the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes who crossed the North Sea (Denmark) and Northern Germany during the period when the natives spoke a Celtic language. But the majority of the Celtics Speakers were moved to west and north by the invaders mainly in now Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Since the Angles came from Englaland and their language their language was named as Englisc (derived from the words England and English).

The Old English Period
Old English is a term representing the structure of English language used in England for approximately seven centuries (4501150 AD). Like Latin, it is a synthetic language rather than analytic one (modern English) it relies on inflections (endings) on words to indicate their meaning in the sentence (Patten, 93). The term Old English, although signifies a distinctive form of English language, covers a broad range of linguistic usage. This particular period was marked by gigantic changes including social, political and cultural. Thus, the evolution in the use of the vernacular from the orality to literacy was attended by a succession of other transitions affecting Old English.
   
A useful framework to the development of the Old English language is provided by five historical events and each had an importance linguistic allusions. First, the invasion of Britain by the Germanic peoples who became the Anglo-Saxons can be associated to the ensuing dialectal diversity which was said to be a characteristic of this period of language. Second, the coming of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England in 597 AD made accessible to Roman alphabet for Old English writing. Third, the supremacy of King Alfred the Great in the West Saxon Kingdom (871-99 AD) whom formed culture and civilization in which Old English is renowned as language of prestige and status on its own right. Fourth, the Benedictine Reform on the second half of the tenth century that led indirectly to the establishment of an old English literary language. Lastly, the Norman Conquest (1066 AD) precipitated in the language which would turn it eventually towards the Middle English (Alegeo, 234).

The Middle English Period
Middle English (Barbara Strang) is the dialectal phase of English language.  This is for the reason that the period of dialectal variation was presented in writings and eventually in ideological concerns which have highlighted the writings of dialects in consequent times. Moreover, it is significant to recognize the developments within the period, and to evaluate also that some elements of Middle English had been manifested in other periods. Consequently, there was type of class division during this period the family of lower classes used English while the upper classes family spoke French. However, in 14th century, English became the major language again although there are several French words added and this was primarily the language they called the Middle English.
   
The dialects of this Middle English were natural growths of those existing in Old English period. Instead of Northumbrian, Northern was used in the Middle English period like Midland took the place of Mercian and Southern. Moreover, Kentish held its name, although it was sometimes included in the more universal name of Southern English. The writings for these dialects were numerous especially in the Southern and Midland since the literature of the Middle English period is broad. This is for the reason that no attempt will be formulated to mention more than a few typical examples like Lives of St. Katherine and St. Juliana, Ancren Riwle or Rule of Nuns and others.

The Period of Early Modern English
Towards the last era of Middle English period, an abrupt and discrete transformation in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) began, with vowels being manifested shorter and shorter. At the start of the 16th century, the British had contacted with many peoples all around the world. This period is also renowned as the Renaissance of Classical learning (Roseberry and OHanlon). This indicates that many words and phrases had entered into the language. Moreover, the invention of printers indicates that there was a common language to be used by many individuals. Books and other printing materials became cheaper and more people discovered to read. Printing also conveyed standardization of English language. Spelling and grammar became secured and the vernacular of London was considered to be the most publishing houses standard. Thus, in 1604 the first English dictionary was distributed.

The Period of Late Modern English
The primary distinction between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is presence of vocabulary since it has been used all over the world. It has adapted more words that mainly arise from two major factors first, Industrial Revolution and advancement in technology built new-fangled words, and secondly, the British Empire was as it height in invading almost one fourth of the earths regions. For this reason, the English language was adopted many foreign words from countries they invaded.

Varieties of English Language 
The British Empire colonization in North America resulted in the formation of a discrete American variety of English America. In several means, American English is more similar to the English used by Shakespeare than modern British English. For this reason, some expressions that the British calls as Americanisms are considered to be British expressions that were conserved in their colonies (Ammon, 45). A much concrete example of these were trash was used instead of rubbish, loan was used as verb replacing lend, fall for autumn and many other. Spanish Language also influenced the English, adopting the words ranch, canyon, vigilante and stampede. The invasion of these Spanish words has entered English through the defrayal of the American West. Moreover, French words also contributed in the English through Louisiana and West African words entered through the slave trade period.
   
Today, two major national varieties of English emerge in historical preference, in number of speakers and influence. These are the United Kingdom and the United States  British English and American English. These two countries are accountable for more than 400 millions of speakers of English United States leading the number with approximately four times the population of the United Kingdom. Other nations in which English is the primary language are Canada, Australia, India, the Irish Republic, South Africa and New Zealand. But English is also been an official language in other parts of the Americas such as West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Guyana, Belize and the Falklands. In Europe English is practiced in Malta and Gibraltar in Africa such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Uganda, Tanzania, the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Mauritius, Malawi, Madagascar, Liberia, Kenya, Ghana, Gambia and Cameroon in Asia including Philippines, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Nepal, Pakistan, Malaysia, Bangladesh and Hong Kong and in Oceania such as Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Borneo (Algeo, 210). English also plays an important role in many other countries around the world as a commercial, technical or cultural language.
   
Despite its enormous geographical spread, English in its entire national varieties has remained extremely uniform. Although there are differences between national varieties, their differences are insignificant compared with the similarities. English is unmistakably one language, with two major national varieties American and British.
   
In this research paper, English is noted to be influential today due to the United States dominance of television, cinema, trade, popular music and technology including the internet. Although it originated in Britain, United States surpassed the influence of the language as it is today. More studies also go beyond description that they attempt to explain today how prevalence and dominance English has come about. Various historical events were analyzed to show how English became the world modest language of todays generation. It has a broad amount of words not found in any technical and social nature of other languages. Thus, it can be concluded that English is a very powerful language that every countries are now studying because they are aware of the benefits it will bring to their nations.

The question of judicial measures for juvenile offenders has always elicited mixed reactions on all spheres of the American justice system. While there exists judicial courts to handle criminal prosecutions against minors, these measures are usually applicable to lesser criminal charges. In cases where older juveniles are charged with capital offences like robbery with violence, homicides, most state attorneys will ask the court to try the offenders like adults.

Most states have enacted legislations to provide for adult trials for minors who are deemed adult enough to stand trial in an adult court jurisdiction. Even for those without such legislations, the discretion is always left at the hands of the relevant district attorneys to determine the fate of such minor offenders. The question that matter is not the legal foundation, but the moral and psychological basis for such trial. The immaturity of the offenders coupled with the chance of wrongful execution of the minor based on evidenced extracted through coercion, intimidations makes the case for death penalty for the juvenile offenders untenable, no matter what kind of offence they are suspected of committing. Just like the US Supreme Court held that conviction and hanging of mentally retarded people is a violation of their constitutional rights (Stanford v. Kentucky, 1989) due to disproportional nature of the punishment when compared to their culpability, so should such reasoning be applied to the capital offence juveniles. Psychologically, a person under the age of 18 years is considered not fully developed both in mind and in brain. Therefore their judgment faculty may still be underdeveloped to be held culpable for such crimes even if they are incriminatingly found guilty. According to Nobel Lawrence, research has found no evidence that trying minors in adult courts has resulted in decreased juvenile crime rate and it is therefore self defeating when such actions are taken. Such practice only increase rate of recidivism (2009).

The issue of race tension and associated racism has made such trials look unfair. Studies and research have found out that minority youths are disproportionately tried as adults based on their skin color. Most African American minors have more often than not, found themselves in adult docks. The Youth CrimeAdult Time report found that in 9 out of 10 felony charges, African American are tried as adults.
          
While determining the effectiveness of the death sentence to the minors, the Missouris Supreme Court in the matters of Simmons v Roper (2004), the court upheld that the executions of persons charged with homicides before their 18 birthday is unconstitutional. The court based its verdict on immaturity and the consequent reduced culpability of the offenders, the special risk of wrongful execution based on false confession. The court also cited the trends in other states judicial procedures against convicted minors where courts rarely implement the death penalties even in jurisdictions where it is legal.

On March 1, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court, confirming the Missouri Supreme Courts decision, voted 5-4 and affirmed the ruling in Simmons v Roper. The U S Supreme Court cited social science evidence of the reduced culpability of juveniles and the declining use of juvenile death penalty (Fagan  West, 2005).
While the US constitution has been silent on matters of juvenile death penalties, state legislatures have take lead role in enacting statues that prohibit such penalties. These include Wyoming 2004, Kansas 1994, New York 1995, Indiana 2002, Montana 1999, South Dakota 2004 (Fagan  West, 2005). This represents advances in elimination of death sentences in most trials of juvenile offenders in the US.

The societal perception of viability of the death sentence for juvenile offenders is trending across the political divide. Currently, it is no longer the liberal Americans that view such juvenile trials as unconstitutional, but even the most conservatives have come round to accept this view. The general societal consensus has been the basis for the Supreme Courts citation in upholding such bans.

While most states have not enacted such legislations, capital offence charges involving minors are normally directed to the appropriate juvenile courts. Therefore the arguments for subjecting minors to full adult trials in cases involving capital punishments have been exhausted. It must be added that in developed justice and legal systems of Western Europe, there is no room for such practices. The US should therefore equate with its developed partners by totally eliminating such law by de jure. The de facto state of current laws is that they are subject to different interpretations and thus this may give chance to violate them. The harrowing experience of a minor on a death row is not only archaic but also barbaric.
            
Restorative justice has time and again been used just before sentencing takes place. These programs are used when a plea of guilty has been reached. The prosecuting attorney enters in agreement with the court concerning the accused and the accused is given a chance to make final submissions. When the sentence is finally delivered, it is usually a reparative sentence that gives the guilty person lesser sentence. When diversion is involved, there is the avoidance of the prison or penitentiary institution.
The decision in offering diversion restorative justice is normally at the discretion of the court and the presiding judge may or may not grant such pleas. The district attorney must first let the court know the desire to offer such service.

According to the UNs Training Manual on Alternative Dispute Resolution and Restorative Justice, there are 3 fundamental principles of Restorative Justice, namely
Punitive actions do not always serve those interests best.

The primary determinants of justice are the interests of the victim, the community and even the offender.
Crimes are against individuals and, to some extent, communities, not against the state or the law.
Thus when giving a sentence the basis should lie in these principles, example applicable might be for the case of Rupert Madoffs Ponzi scheme, even though he was sent to the prison and justice was deemed to have been done, the interests of his victims and the Community which lost in excess of 50 billion was not addressed and most of them will not get their savings back.

In November 2006, Festus Oguhebe, a Nigerian professor was sentenced to 2 years in jail for pepper spraying his child by a Hinds County Circuit Judge L. Breland Hilburn. Such a sentencing was reached despite repeated pleas from his two teenage children and wife arguing that they wanted counseling for the professor not jail terms. Such formal pronouncement of the law, while legal, is totally out of the principles of justice.  The interest of such litigation lay with the children and the community, not the state. By sending the bread winner to prison for a social vice against his child, the court not only subjected the children to double jeopardy, but it also denied the victims his right to a good life.
This is a typical situation when a restorative justice system would better deal with such a situation. In sentencing their father to jail, the presiding judge did not do justice to the children, who among them were the victim.
     
According to the UNs Training Manual on Alternative Dispute Resolution and Restorative there are several philosophical roots of Restorative Justice. The first is that all human beings are capable of reforms and thus everyone convicted of a certain felony has to be evaluated on an individual basis and then a fair judgment reached on merits of having him behind the bar over freedom.
The second is that offenders should have a chance to make amends to the crimes against their victims and take responsibility. This drives their conscious to positive thinking.
The third is that if an offender makes an amend, then he should be integrated into the society. The last philosophical root lies in the fact that offenders should be protected from retribution so that society as a whole does not suffer from norms of revenge-taking.
   
The UN publication provides 5 stages of restorative justice system. The first is the trial process. This involves determination if a crime has been committed and excludes sentencing. The second stage is the inclusive encounters of all the stakeholders. Victims, offenders, selected community representatives plus the members of the select judicial system meet to have interactive negotiations. The law enforcers are also allowed to join in the deliberations.

Stage three involves amends. All assembled individuals jointly determine what the offender has to do to repair the harm they have done. The judge mediates the process to a contract but the victim has the final word on the administration of justice.

The fourth stage is reintegration. Upon the offenders agreeing to the contract to make amends, they are restored as contributing members of the society while the victim is given the necessary form of additional assistance or therapy. The final stage involves monitoring and oversight of the reintegration contract by the state and the community.

There were different implications and effects that were caused by the World War I and II to African and Africans as well. Many lives were lost and many were rendered useless. Though there are a lot of things that were achieved during this period, there are others that brought about great problems to people.

In 1940, German armies were motivated to believe that Africans were in deed their enemies and there was a need to address the issue. With engaging in war with France, and France had several blacks in their army, they were the main target and they were being killed more than their white counterparts. German was fighting people who were below the Nazi, or who Nazi believed they were mutilating their colleagues (Raffael, 596).
The effects of the war brought both the positive and negative effects to Africans and Africa as well. Nazi hierarchy had already begun to kill those who they thought were below their Aryan. This was a great suffering for Africans because they were being killed mercilessly. Even they are among their French counterparts, there was no African who was captured and imprisoned but instead they were killed.
The other problem was that the Geneva regulations were not applicable to Africans. This was because, the Nazi rule and theory was that the rules were only applicable to the whites but not Africans, thus raising another effect to the African as they were killed without any word or anyone to defend them.

Though there were some of the German militaries who were supporting Africans and defending them, those who were Nazified had not respect to Africans. This helped the African soldiers show their heroism as they were trying to defend themselves and in most cases being placed in the front line in the battle, they had to try their best and defend their combat. They believed that African culture believed that whenever an African gets his enemy, he would use coupe-coupe, which was believed was a deadly weapon compared to other short range weapons. They also believed that Africans were already on the attack positions and they would not hesitate attacking their rivals. They used this as a justification of killing Africans (Raffael, 600).

In Africa, Africans had already learnt that there is nothing special with the whites and there is nothing whites can do blacks cant do. Africans developed resistant powers and they were now defending their land against occupation by whites. Africans were fighting for freedom and independence. This was not going well with whites in Europe as the information they were getting is that Africans are mutilating their people, raping their women and killing others. This brought about the justification of the Germans illegal activities of killing blacks and mutilating them This charge became an ob- session of some German officers and soldiers and helped to justify the killings of black soldiers and the no-quarters policy in some battles with the (Raffael, 600).

Most of the African Countries, though they had already suffered a lot, they had already started fighting whites and they managed to get their independence and have their own governments without of the colonial rules.

The book is mainly about the leadership of Congo and the torture the people went through before the country gained independence. The country had been privately controlled by the King of Belgians, Leopard II. Leopard used his power to gain all the wealth in the country, that is ivory and rubber. He made people work as slaves in these industries which were intended for own benefits. With time, Christian missionaries and other nations such as Britain and US intervened making the administration of the country to be transferred to Belgium. This did not free the people, the slavery continued until all the ivory and rubber in the country were exhausted.

Chapter fifteen is titled as reckoning. It mainly talks about the death rate of the people in Congo during the colonialism period which was then administered by King Leopold. Different causes of deaths are discussed in detail in the chapter. People are said to have died due to individual murders, suicide, massacres, starvation, exposure to dangerous climates and diseases such as small pox and sleeping sickness. The birth rate also goes down because of slavery, sexual harassment to the women working as slaves and also imprisonment which included physical terror and psychological torture.

According to many articles that were published at that time, it is clearly indicated that the population of the country went down by almost half. According to the statistics of the first census done in the country in 1924, the total population was found to be ten million people. The results were a shock since there was no genocide that had ever happened in the country. The high death rates had been systematic due to the brutality and torture in the country. Others have been said to have occurred as a result of forced labor. This chapter mainly details in showing the reader how the murders had taken place. It also talks about the slavery and harassment in the country.

Morel together with other humanitarians did all they can to prevent all these atrocities. They publicized them and campaigned day and night against them. On getting these complains Leopold responded to them aggressively. He started giving bribes to journalists, politicians and newspaper editors so that they could change the information and not expose him. He even went to the extent of purchasing a space in the newspaper where lies about the situation in Congo were written he made sure that people believed Congo was a paradise in Africa. He even published many books showing the administration in Congo.

 He had employed people whose work was to decline with what Morel told people and instead display Leopold to be a humanitarian who can never torture people. In his process of hiring people, he hired Henry I. Kowalsky who was a skilled lawyer. Henry had a good appeal in the public and therefore could not be trusted. Leopold therefore noticed his mistake and decided to fire him. Unhappy with what Leopold had done to him, he turned against him and gave Morel hundreds of documents showing how Leopold had given judges, politicians, journalist and newspaper editors bribes so that they could provide cover for him.

On getting the information, Morel republished those newspapers exposing all what Leopold had been doing to the public. Leopold began receiving pressure from every direction including international political front. All this pressure resulted to people starting to believe the Casement report which Leopold had prior declined. He therefore decided to form his own commission to of enquiry, which had three cronies. This commission was supposed to visit Congo and come up with reports on the situation in the country. It travelled to Congo where it spent quite sometime investigating the activities taking place.

In its investigation process, it managed to take three hundred and seventy official depositions which were related to murder, slavery, torture and sexual harassment. Leopold had done this so that the commission could come up with reports which were disapproving the Casement report and also Morels claims. He got a rude shock when the commission instead, brought a detailed report on the true situation in the country, agreeing with the Casements report and supporting what Morel fought for. He damaged the source of the report and instead came up with a summary which had little or no resemblance to the original report. His efforts were futile the original report had been already published and spread allover.

Leopold when he was in his seventies had a mistress by the name Caroline. This brought about many questions in Belgium. He is also said to have been hypochondriac and a germophobe. The situation about Congo was getting hard on him. He therefore decided to sell Congo to Belgium. They entered into a negotiation and he ensured that he had several terms favoring him. Congo was then sold to Belgium but to the peoples disappointment, nothing really changed. The country however had its name changed. Chapter seventeen deals with mainly on summaries of various people. An example is Sheppard, who was tried for the publication of atrocities in Congo.

He was not convicted but he was fully exonerated from the country. He returned to America but had been involved with several sexual relations with the local women. On the case of Casement, he travelled to Peru where he documented many abuses against the people there. He later took the cause for the independence of Irish. Other people including Mark Twain and Conad Doyle joined Morel in his campaign against the atrocities in the Congo republic. Leopold later fell ill and decided to marry Caroline. He later died leaving behind Caroline who got married to a pimp later. At that time, the relationship between him and his daughters had ended.

After Leopolds death, the situation in Congo remained unchanged for a long time. Morel and the other humanitarians still continued to demand for the rights of the natives. However, in the next decade, the situation started to slowly improve. By that time, rubber production in the world was increasing at a high rate. As a result, the rubber market in Congo dropped drastically. This helped to improve the situation in the country since many people had been taken as slaves in order to harvest rubber. Chapter 18 continues to give us short bibliographies about people. For instance, Henry is said to have died early in life.

Alice Harris together with her husband founded a center for human rights. This centre is still present up to date. Sheppard on the other hand decided to speak to Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois. For the case of Casement, he travelled to German where he tried to seek German assistance for the case of Irish independence. He was later arrested and convicted to treason. He spent some sentence in Pentoville prison and was later hanged.  Morel was later arrested and charged with exporting of war materials to neutral countries. He was therefore given a six month sentence in Pentoville prison. After his sentence, he got into politics.

Chapter 19 shows how people, after the Second World War wrote articles about it and forgot of the atrocities in Congo. Today, no one is aware of the first international campaign against atrocities. An historian named had Jules Marchal is brought in as the book ends. He was born in Belgium in 1925.By 1948, he started working in Congo. He worked in Congo for a long time till it gained independence. In 1970, he started working for the Belgian Foreign ministry and was also given the post of being the ambassador to many African nations. He came across an article in Congo which talked about the rule of Leopold and the atrocities in the country at that time.

The note indicated how Congo had lost half of its total population. He did not believe the note since many people saw Leopold as a humanitarian who could never torture people. He began investigations and later knew of the international media outcry which had been organized by Morel. He later returned to Brussels and continued his work in the foreign ministry. He tried to investigate on the articles he had read but he could not be given access. He started publishing books concerning the era of colonialism and he was later given access to the materials and summarized them. As the book ends, we are shown the process of Congos independence and the current situation in the country.

In 1892, a shoe maker named Homer Plessy from New Orleans Louisiana was arrested for refusing to transfer to a railroad car designated for the dark-colored population in the East Louisiana Railroad after he sat in a first class railroad car meant for the white-skinned constituents of the state. Plessy appealed that he should be considered white since only 18 of him was African American as it  was substantiated in his heritage. According to him, by forcing him to transfer to a different car, the authorities were violating the 13th and 14th Amendments of the United States Constitution which impedes slavery and segregation. From local custody to Supreme Court, Plessy was tried and accused of civil disobedience (Elliot, 2009).
  
The arbiters of the court exhibited linear cognition which disregarded Plessy s plea of violation of rights and obstinately favored Luoisianas claim that they did not violate such Amendment of the United States Constitution since they have the right to imply regulations and policies in railroad stations that are within their state. The case was denied of opportunities to be studied sufficiently as the justices esteemed and acknowledged that the act of separating the races under impartial rights should be abided, setting aside the sentiments of the colored inhabitants.

II  
In South Campton County Virginia, a group of African American slaves initiated a rebellion that killed about 57 white men, women and children before the military forces and a number of armed civilians were able to arrive and take control. Angered by the murder of almost more than 50 innocent lives, vigilantes eradicated dozens of slaves who were not involved in the insurrection and exiled hundreds of free colored people from their land. The leader of the insurrection was a literate African American slave named Nat Turner who claimed he saw visions of God telling him to commit this act of violence, and with his extraordinary power of persuasion, he was able to compel other slaves to join him. After Turners surrender on October 30, 1831, he and his men were executed. (Bernier, 2010)
  
Following the death of Nat Turner, a year of debate relating to the status of the African American slaves congested the Virginia General Assembly. Although it was considered that they should be relieved from their abject duties as slaves, a systematic arrangement for their freedom was never formed. Nat Turners act of rebellion caused that an anti-literacy law be passed which diminished the African American slaves freedom to communicate and have the opportunity to be educated, thus, almost completely mutilating their already restricted rights.
  
From that historical event which became known as Nat Turners Rebellion or South Campton Insurrection, it can be analyzed that it might not only be a visionary or a delusioned mans whim that caused such barbaric deeds but possibly an act or cry for liberation. Unequal treatment, enslavement for the rest of a mans life and forced labor for very minimal or no wage at all, these are acceptable factors that can be considered as parts of a motive for the rebellion in South Campton.

III  
In 1803, a British convict settlement was established in a Tasmanian aborigini inhabited island   called Van Diemens Land. A total of of 65,000 convicted men and women were settled in the island of  which most of them were cruelly traumatized and extremely violent. Due to the incompetent procedure of punishment, convicts were able to take flight into the Tasmanian hinterland where they exerted the fullness of their brutality and thirst of blood upon the aboriginis of the island (Turnbull, 1948)
  
Symbolically and appropriately, this event in history can be described as a case of rape as the innocent aborigines were violated of their rights and freedom to live accordingly. Not only were they conquered and treated as slaves in their own land but they were exterminated and murdered like animals. They were robbed of their privilege as humans and left their race at the brink of their extinction.

Question 1
The significance of the fact that Africans were in Britain during the Roman Occupation, that Vice Admiral Thomas Wyndham went to Benin in 1553 and found that the King of Benin was fluent in Portuguese and furthermore, that five Ghanaians visited London in 1555 was that slavery was not the only way that Africans made their way to these foreign lands. Though most of this information is not recorded in history books, it is a fact that Africans would travel to places outside Africa, and they were actually treated well and humanely in some of these incidences.

In the case of the Ghanaians going to London, it is said that they have been doing so since the 16th century even though they are now only fifty years old. This shows that this happened way before slavery even began. During this time, knowledge of the African people and their cultures was increasing but the white man had other plans in store for these Africans. They started taking in the myths that they had heard about Africans as lazy, carefree and cannibal Africans, and wove them into a racist ideology. They did this so that they could feel no disgrace in buying or kidnapping them, shipping them to the new world, selling them and forcing them to work using a whip.1

Question 2
Black Liverpool was at one time an obscure seaport. It later on became one of the richest trading centers in Europe at the height of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. This is because, once they involved themselves in slave trade,  Liverpool used more than half the ships involved in slavery and by the mid 18th century, imported from Africa more than half of the slaves purchased by all the ships in Britain. Its net proceeds from the African trade in 1783-93 were said to be 12,294,116. The profit was accrued on the basis of 878 voyages and the sale of 303,737 slaves. This is what majorly propelled them to such great heights, making it one of the richest slaves trading centers.

Question 3
London has always been involved in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. From its beginning, up to the time of its abolition, their involvement was evident, and the wealth and fates of the people of London and their merchants was based on it. According to the article, Breaking the Silence, almost every aspect of London was as a result of their involvement with their trafficking of slaves from Africa to the Americas and the Caribbean. This included banks, insurance companies, schools, museums, libraries, universities and even its population.

The Royal Family and the countrys aristocracy were central to the growth of Britains slave trade and the slaving company known as the Royal Adventurers into Africa in 1660. They are the ones that issued financial backing to this trade. Later on, the Royal African Company was formed in 1672, making London the only English city that would benefit from the slave trade until 1698. This monopoly that they were now enjoying over the slave traders and plantation holders made them very powerful. . They had 15 Lord Mayors of London, 25 sheriffs and 38 aldermen of the City of London as shareholders in the Royal Africa Company from 1660-1690. They also had access to gold which they got from the African Coast in large supply, a factor that also made them thrive financially.

Question 4
The Abolition movement happened in the 1800s to end slavery. The majority of abolitionists activity happened in the USA and Britain. Most of the well known abolitionists came from New England and women were also a part of this movement. Two people that played an active role in the abolition of slave trade were Olaudah Equiano and Quobna Ottobah Cugoano Olaudah Equiano had been captured from Africa and made a slave as a young man and he therefore used his experiences of slavery to campaign for and persuade others to stop this inhumane trade towards the African people. Before going to London to get himself involved in the abolitionist movement, he worked as a seaman, merchant and explorer in the Caribbean, Britain, Arctic and the American colonies. In the year 1789, he published his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Oluadah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African. It is said to be one of the earliest books published by a black African writer and apart from making him a wealthy man, it also helped influence the British parliament to abolish the trade through the Slave Trade Act of 1807.

Quobna Ottobah Cugoano was a Fanti from Ghana and a friend of Oluadah Equiano. He was kidnapped and sold into slavery at the age of 13. He was deported to the island of Grenada and later to England. He was a leader of the free black community in London and like his friend, also wrote a book called, Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery in 1787. This book is said to have been a great and impressive assertion of the Africans right to freedom and dignity. In England also, he began writing letters to newspapers calling for the end of slavery. He was familiar with abolitionists Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson.
African presence in Britain can be traced back to the times of the Roman Occupation to the time of the abolition of slavery in Britain.

This is because in regard to the times of the Roman Occupation, older texts and folklore of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales often mention the arrival of Africans and a distinct African presence, not just as visitors but as the original inhabitants. However, this fact has been omitted from most history books. Later on, more of them were brought to Britain as a result of the slave trade. While some of them went back to their homelands after being freed, most remained behind to start life on a clean slate. Some of the things that slaves did in order to gain back their freedom were Firstly, some of them took part in slave rebellions, and in other incidences, black slaves in Britain went to court to get their freedom. By the early 1800s, most judges did set them free.

Question 5
Black Liverpool was at one time an obscure seaport. It later on became one of the richest trading centers in Europe. With time, it became a center for the education of early black students and the home of a free black community which was made up of people from various other places. The black community of Liverpool was there even before the American War of Independence and this is what led to Black Loyalists settling in London and by extension, what led to the growth of the township of Liverpool. Early settlers in Liverpool ranged from freed slaves and black servants to the African rulers sons and daughters who were students, who had visited the port from at least the 1730s. 

Black Liverpool had connections with Black America, and this is seen in the way people like Ida B. Wells could go to Black Liverpool to raise awareness on some of the issues that were affecting the Black people.  This changed their culture because they were able to interact and see for themselves the ills that were taking place in the other lands. This also affected them socio-politically as it is as a result of these tours that people were able to see the true impact that some of the issues such as segregations and lynchings were having on the Black community.

Question 6
The connection between Black America and Black Britain is indeed not new. There were instances when Ida B. Wells would go to Black Britain to sensitize the people living there on the social ills that were affecting the Black community. We see that this had an impact as people actually took time to listen to her, and it made the people living there both black and white to really understand the extent to which the Black people were suffering at the hands of their white counterparts. This is one of the things that impacted the abolitionists movement and made it successful.

Question 7
After World War 11, Afro-immigrants went back home to find that life was different. It had become harder than before they left for the war. Jobs were not easy to come by, and the standards of living were much lower than what they had gotten used to while in Britain. On realizing this, they began to go back to Britain to try their luck at having the good life. This was not difficult as there were no restrictions on their entry into Britain as their passports were proof that they were citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies. When they got there however, they started facing problems such as racism and segregation.

According to Grace Hale (1992), the white people created a culture of segregation mainly to counter black success, and to stop them from achieving their potential. They knew that if they frustrated the Africans then they would have the upper hand, and thus they started doing such things as lynching and maltreatment at any chance that they got. This, according to Selvon is what brought about the formation of ghetto colonies. This was a defensive and corporate response. In his words, he says that it involved the Black community turning in upon itself in the face of public racism that rapidly developed through the 1960s. This meant the growth of internal cultural cohesiveness and solidarity within the Black populous.

Question 8
Kehinde Okolo, a character from Buchi Emechetas 1994 novel Kehinde is an Afro-immigrant who has just come to Nigeria after having stayed in London for the past 18 years with her husband and two children. With time, she adapts to the way of life of London but her husband convinces her that they should go back to Nigeria which is their native land. He goes ahead, and two years later, Kehinde follows suite. When she finally joins Albert her husband in Lagos, she gets a rude shock, especially when it comes to the African patriarchal traditions.

Firstly, after her arrival to her house, she starts looking for her husband by calling out his name. Ifeyinwa, her sister is horrified and asks her to keep her voice down. She continues to explain to her that in Nigeria, one is not supposed to call her husband by his given name, unlike in the land of the white people where this is the norm. Ifeyinwa says that by calling her husband by his given name, she is reducing him to the level of a houseboy or behaving as if she circumcised him. This is like elevating herself to a higher position than him. She is also told not to refer to her husband as my husband, because there is now a second wife in the picture.

Another incidence that shows the patriarchal traditions of the people of Nigeria is the fact that when Kehinde asks her sister why did not even give her a hint about taking a second wife, Ifeyinwa, her sister says, What rubbish you talk. Men do not say such things. Its like asking why a man did not tell his wife before taking a mistress. It shows just how supreme the man is, that he can make such detrimental decisions without even consulting his wife. When she also asks what he told his father after taking another wife, her sister says To his father What could he say This is Nigeria you dont talk to your father anyhow. At the end of the day, she is left dejected because this is the exact opposite of the way life was while she was in the metrpole.

Question 9
Three organizations in the UK, whose work is focused on the impact of climate change or other issues related to the biosphere on Black British communities or populations are Firstly, there is Suscom, which deals with environmental justice. They work with communities suffering from pollution and exclusion. Secondly, we have the EPA, which aims help sort out domestic environmental justice issues that affect the black community. Thirdly, we have Panos London, which focuses on issues regarding climate change not only in Britain, but in other parts of the world as well.

The Audacity of Hope is the second book written by Barack Obama, and was written in 2004. His first book, Dreams from My Father, is an interesting biography of his life, including the problems of growing up as an inter-racial boy through manhood. The Audacity of Hope is not a biography it is an interesting story that includes Barack Obamas political views, ideals, and thoughts, during his 2004 campaign for the U.S. Senate. It explains his ideas how he would resolve domestic and international problems, as well as supporting his Democratic political party.

The book became popular just 16 weeks before he announced he would run for President of the United States. With each book, he tactfully laid another step, for his career, as President. The Audacity of Hope takes the reader through several stages of government, explaining how he relates to each phase, chapter by chapter.

Chapter One explains the two governmental parties, the Republicans and Democrats, and explores recent political history, explaining how results were achieved. Obama explains what Congress how it works how the whole process is slow and tedious, and he is amazed they get anything done in the first place. He knows Democrats would better handle the issues, and states there are two sides to every story the Republican side and the Democratic side. He explains he was told the differences are generational, and has followed political issues since the 60s, adding his thoughts how issues could have been handled differently. Throughout Congress, there are those Republicans and Democrats who hold on to their old ideas, and those who have solutions that are more modern. The Republicans have won because of the techniques they use, not their beliefs. Democrats must adopt these same techniques. Politics needs a well balance of maturity, idealism and realism.
  
In Chapter Two, Obama discusses common values. He marvels at his first visit to Washington, and compares thoughts of Washington 20 yrs earlier. The White House was impressive and he saw solutions that he felt Congress had overlooked. He believed in the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights, and valued communities and patriotism in citizens. He saw unrest and would prefer a better balance however, a balance would not be easy. In a country like the US, there are always passionate debates, with different opinions. Instead of focusing on party disagreements, he stressed common values that everyone shared. He admits he did not win all debates, and those who opposed his views were very critical. He wanted the democratic sense of responsibility and unity of family. He was empathetic with many issues, and claimed there was an empathetic deficit in Congress. He based his opinions on American values, and he was convinced his beliefs should not compromise values.
   
Obama explores the constitution, and how the two political parties are organized. He struggled with the difficulties of working with Congress backlog. Communication with the other senators appeared slow and nonproductive, as many were wading in traditions. The problem was gaining control over Congress, and the irony was the issues were lost, because of differences between the conservatives and liberals. He explains filibuster, what it means, and how each party used it, in times of distress. Ultimately, through his frustration, the way things are done are set forth in the U.S. Constitution and our government founders, and even though congress is bogged down with procedures, the construction and procedures are clearly organized and well thought out, by the Founders. The procedures work, even in todays environment.  He is a firm believer in democracy, and praises those who fought for its existence. Nevertheless, even though the filibuster is a time consuming method, designed to sway each side, there is always an ultimate outcome.
  
In Chapter 4, Obama recalls the town hall meetings as one of his most favorite tasks, of his senate campaign. He discusses the forces that influence a politician (money, media, interest groups), and his staff would setup meetings, at every chance. He would arrive early to have pictures taken, and would meet both Republicans and Democrats, throughout the country. It is an American tradition, and he enjoyed meeting the people. While campaigning, he explains ambition must be accompanied with complete humiliation. Many issues influence politicians, including media exposure and funding for a campaign.  If the media finds out unsavory individuals provide funding, the campaign is viewed negatively. He spent much time with people who could influence his campaign, and realized he had to stick to his beliefs, and not be swayed by the wealthy people he met. He was fortunate to receive positive media coverage, and recalled a few specific interviews. He understands that he has to stand for what he believes, and cannot compromise or lie. He searched his beliefs and spoke his beliefs. He supported his Democratic party and felt fortunate to receive only positive advertising on TV.
  
Opportunities were explored, in Chapter Five. His senate campaigning required a lot of airplane travel, and he was always traveling from one city to the next, talking to the public, in his town hall meetings. The internets ability, to involve politicians with every issue, allowed his campaign to be understood, and his campaign was widely supported throughout the world.  Companies and individuals could contribute through his website. He tackled the problems of globalization and the economy, in his town meetings, and what should be done about it, reflecting how previous presidents handled other situations, and how capitalism always survived. He identifies what reforms need to be made, and what he feels are the best investments for our country, for example, energy infrastructure, the national deficit, and health care reform, reflecting on previous propositions for healthcare reform. He stated he understands the situations of the American family, how it differs from those individuals with wealth, and he based his discussions on how he can help those in need.

Chapter 6 is a strong commitment to faith. After his Senate Democratic nomination, he was acknowledged as a person with a strong sense of justice and a fair-minded person. There were still those who opposed his views, especially on abortion. He discusses, in detail, his religious beliefs on the topic of abortion, and how we must move forward, in the future. He explains the problems of solving poverty, racism, and unemployment, in a ten-point plan, referring to the history of the government leaders and issues they faced and resolved. He supports his faith and the anchor it has become in his life.

The topic of race is discussed in Chapter 7.
He recalls the funeral of Rosa Parks, during the time of hurricane Katrina, and how her refusal to give up a seat on a bus started equal rights for the black community. He recalled first hand events that he experienced, causing prejudice to subside, during his campaign. His campaign caused a change in the black Illinois community, also. Funding was raised, from black professionals in the Chicago community. He exemplified that a person can live their dream, and not be confined or limited, because they are of black origin. He closed a gap between government and the public, and statistics showed that all races supported his campaign. He emphasized the universe, and was not race-specific. He reinforced that issues were not hopeless. He succeeded in convincing that things will change he heard the public, and he had a will to succeed and take care of their needs. People believed Barack Obama could change our culture, and we could do it together. His strategies were solid, and he affirmed that we were all Americans, not of any specific race.

Chapter 8 discussed international relations and the world beyond our borders. Obama explains most international countries are dependent on history and conflicts of the United States. He recalled his childhood, in Indonesia, and how most Americas do not even know where Indonesia is located. He related that foreign countries are dependent on our foreign policies, for their countrys growth. He reviewed historic events of the past, and how our government handled the situations, within American foreign policies. The demise of the world trade center created a situation that required everyone to pitch in, to raise money for the disaster. He spent time reviewing the problem, and what actions he would have taken. How much should the United States get involved in foreign governments The question became one debated for the next several years, because of Iraq. Ultimately, he supports peace, not war. Each countrys problems must be dealt with separately, and we want to spread our ideals, to promote countries to develop their own democratic government.
 
Chapter 9 concludes his journey to the Senate. He won the election for U.S. senator, in 2005, and commuted to Washington DC, with his family and home still in Chicago. He warmly recalls his family life, with Michelle and his two daughters. Into his second year of the senate, life had settled into a routine. He relates his own family experiences with those of the American family. The problems are all the same within families, and he has sympathy for those that have to make difficult decisions, provide for the needs of their family.
 
The Audacity of Hope is a very enjoyable, fact-filled, easy to read conversation by Barack Obama that is interesting and enlightening. His story is based on the strong ties he has within his own family, and the joys they bring to his life. He deals with conflicts within himself and choices within his career, as a Democrat. The Audacity of Hope is a story of a very likable person sharing his feelings and views, in a very interesting, humanistic conversation