African-American Studies

The emancipation of African Americans in the North was borne on the back of a deficiency of cheap labor amongst Northern businesses. Thousands of slaves fled the south to search for work in the North. In these new circumstances African Americans enjoyed more freedom and rights than in the south where after the Civil war whites had sought to regain control of blacks using the infamous Jim Crow Laws. This hostile environment was coupled by rampant violence against African American males culminating in numerous lynching that served to reinforce the northern migration of thousands of African Americans.

Upon appropriating capital, African Americans begun to penetrate the political system in Northern cities as more and more whites fled to the suburbs in a bid to avoid growing racial tensions that had emerged in the North. This left gaps in the political representation that allowed more and more African Americans to enter in to positions of influence.

Aside from this trend more and more African Americans begun to go in to respectable professions, a trend that further cemented their influence and power. All the while conditions for African Americans in the South were deteriorating as the economic bedrock of the south that is agriculture faced growing problems. The witnessing of the harsh conditions faced by African Americans in the south led to many Northern abolitionists to begin championing the emancipation of African Americans from Slavery. Huge riots and unrest had begun popping up in the North as more neighborhoods were populated by African Americans. A growing current of racial tension intensified through the efforts and new capacities that were obtained by the progressive portions of the African American Northern population.

How did the domestic slave trade and the exploitation of black women by white males affect slave families
The emergence of slave families can be traced as early as 1790 where after the first boat loads of slaves were brought from Africa the slave populations begun forming a community. These communities lived in an uneasy coexistence and had become quite friendly with their task masters (Malone, 1996). However this fragile coexistence did not last long. Around the beginning of the 19th century the importation of slave labor became a dying trend as many colonies and states moved to effect a complete ban on slave labor importation. This immediate shortage of labors that emerged made the established plantations to begin a domestic slave trade. It was this trade that begun dislocation of the slave families and spawned a wide spread sexual exploitation of black women (Donoghue, 2008).

The response to the shortage of a supply of slaves by the slave owners and traders was to tamper with the fertility of the slave families by breeding slaves like animals. This breeding consisted of pairing of stud males whose work was primarily copulation, with females in a view to increasing the numbers of slaves. This pairing was not based on consent and the effects of this practice resulted in sexual anarchist environments where the slave family could not survive intact. Women were openly forced to copulate with many men and vice versa. The ensuing environment severely damaged the social fabric of the slave community and created very dislocated communes (Donoghue, 2008).

In the Northern regions of America large numbers of women were traded to increase stocks and to augment the already dwindling number so females. This was a strategic move to effect the wanton forced copulation of slaves to bring forth many children for labour

How was black freedom in the North limited in the antebellum decades
In antebellum North Carolina the slave code of 1715 defined the place of blacks in society. It was a highly punitive code that outlawed runaway slaves two months after they were away. In addition to this the slaves were to be shot on sight when spotted much like outlaws were treated at the time (Bill, 1992). Such codes restricted the mobility of slaves and denied them the possession of weapons further limiting the rights that slaves enjoyed. The code further forbade black slaves from moving out of the plantations without certain identification documents ant they rigidly forbade any interracial relations.

The passage of the Negro Seaman Act in the South during the antebellum period led to a spread of their doctrine in many Northern states and cities. The laws curtailed the interaction between freed northern seamen and slaves being shipped in from Africa. The laws declared that these freed seamen were to be imprisoned while their ships were docked in the Northern cities and that their expenses were to be covered by the captains of these ships. Failure to adhere to these laws would see imprisonment of the captains and slavery for the freed black seamen.

How did Gabriel, Denmark Vesey and Nat Turner influence the northern abolitionist movement
The Nat Turner insurrection was a significant factor in Northern abolitionist calls for a path to peaceful emancipation of slaves in the South. The insurrection raised fears of a violent reprisal amongst many abolitionists who at the time had not shown a preference for violence as a means to emancipation. However these antiviolence sentiments were to dwindle as more and more abolitionist sought violence as a means to achieve the emancipation.

Northern abolitionists were also compelled to advocate for antislavery upon witnessing the reprisals that emerged after the rebellions that would break out amongst the slaves. The brutality meted out on the slaves begun to rouse more antislavery sentiments amongst northerners.

The term Creole comes from Latin creare, which means to breed or to procreate. The term was first used to describe the Acadians (French Canadians) who came to United States, and settled down in Louisiana, first travelling to New Orleans (where they were met with a Spanish government eager to set them off to their way). The first instance of Creole cuisine can be recorded in New Orleans in 1682, by Robert de LaSalle, the famous explorer, who organized a grand fete in New Orleans after naming the Mississippi basin La Louisiane.

The Acadians settled near the river Mississippi, and started growing familiar crops like wheat and oats, noting that the Louisiana heat did not support most of the crops they had originally got. Corn was added to their diet, and rice began to be extensively cultivated, and these were the grains with which the new settlers began their own blend of language and culture, using the local dialect and combining them with their rich French heritage. As cotton and sugar became chief cash crops produced in this area, Louisiana broke apart into two parts the Creole, who formed the upper crust of the society, and the poorer Cajun, who were considered to of much lower grade. Creole food was a combination of the cuisine of the French mingled together with generous sprinklings of Dutch, Greek, Albanian, Spanish, and English cooking, and liberally seasoned by locally available items like file powder, which was powdered sassafras leaves, made by the Choctaw Indians.

Creole cooking is therefore a bastardized version of French, where different strands of the original cuisine end up in different section of the globe, because a huge part of the cooking was done by African slaves who were captured off the coasts of Africa and sold off to the Americans by Portuguese and Spanish slave traders who made quite a tidy sum in the process. The Africans brought the gumbo, or okra as we now call it, from their homeland, and it grew in the moist Louisiana climate with abundance. The gumbo eventually ended up becoming a version of the famous Bouillabaisse, the rich French fish soup, and okra became a star player in the gumbo game.

Because the Creole people were from a lowly descent consisting of Frenchmen who wanted to make a living, they were considered to be degenerate in the eye of the Europeans, and their language, cuisine and culture were considered inferior. The Creole cuisine evolved in the houses of the rich, who tried to imitate their French counterparts. Therefore, this kind of cuisine is considered to be a rich, delicate combination of different flavors, which gave Creole cuisine a definite turn away from its poorer Cajun version, where cheaper ingredients and quick methods were applied. As far as Creole cuisine was considered, time and good quality ingredients were the key to cooking a good meal. During the late 1800s, Sicilians began to immigrate to Louisiana and settle down.

They added a huge array of new ideas that were incorporated by Creole cuisine. The rich sauce piquante, which is a sumptuous tomato gravy, was made with ripe tomatoes and added to the menu, and the addition of fishes and shellfishes were abundant, thanks to the Italian and Sicilian immigrants. One thing was clear the riches liked the Creole food, while the poor stuck to Cajun cooking which was much easier. The African slaves cooked Creole for their masters while sticking to Cajun themselves. Crawfish, or mudbugs, crabs, oysters, frog legs, and a myriad other ingredients were used in Creole cooking, and a flavorful mix of flour and oil, heated to color to the right consistency, was made to flavor.

This concoction was known as a roux, which formed the base of many a Creole dish, including the Gumbo and the Crawfish touffe, not to mention the ever-famous Jambalaya, which combines a number of different items to make a one-dish hot pot, and is Louisianas answer to the Spanish Paella. Also, red beans and rice was a wash day preparation, cooked all day long, while the women of the house worked on the weeks clothes from the morning. The dish was designed to cook for a long time, imparting its flavors to the beans. Served over rice, and kept overnight, this dish was accompanied by sausages like Andouille and Boudin, and fried catfish.

African notes in Creole cuisine can be found in different levels. Generally, the food in Louisiana was partly responsible for citrus notes and simple tones from the Africans. The grits, which is a way of cooking cornmeal, is decidedly similar to the African fufu, as well as the Italian Polenta. Also, different kinds of pepper were added to the cuisine by the Africans and Spanish for that extra zing in the cuisine.

The rich fields of sugarcane yielded something called cane syrup, which formed the base of the famous syrup cake and molasses formed the base of the fig pudding and pralines. The beignets are a puffed French fritters served with rich Caf au Lait, a beautiful milky brew that takes coffee making to another level by adding ground chicory to it. All these food forge a deep bond between the heritage of several different countries to Louisiana, and it is interesting to note how several different cuisines can fuse into one single, thanks to the unavailability of a huge number of items, and a willingness to adapt to the natural products available to the place. The Acadians took the advantage of the place and the steamy bayou, and settled in. a way that can definitely be laudable.

During the American civil war, emancipation was an important issue. The African Americans in the northern states were convinced that emancipation was the central issue at the beginning of the war. Obviously, the American society was not any different from other societies in the world which were constructed with the European ideas. They were involved in international trade, enslavement of Africans and conquering of lands. This was as a result of the changes in the society due to influence by large number of immigrants especially from Europe (Ayers, 2010). 
   
Slavery was one of the most powerful global phenomenons in the 19th century. While colonialists from Europe came to America and after some times left, slavery continued to grow. In the second half of the 19th century, the slave powers in the southern states had attained a central role not only in the American affairs but also globally. During this time, cotton had become the most important commodity in the world which was produced in the southern states by use of slave labor. Slavery and slave trade become important phenomenon especially to the southern states (Ayers, 2010).
   
While the rest of the world including the northern states stopped slave trade and slavery in the 19th century, slavery seemed to be permanent in the southern states. Many of the slaves escaped from their masters and sought refuge and freedom in the northern states. Moreover, the northern states and the southern states were both eager to extend their influence in American land. As the American societies interacted with the rest of the world through trade, the idea of justice and equity for all was born among the Americans in the northern states. These ideas placed the southern states at an anomalous state when compared to the rest of the world. The increased demand for freedom by the slaves and activists resulted into a conflict between the traditions of the society where the slaves were expected to be subordinate to their masters and justice. Other countries including the European colonies had dismantled slavery in their colonies while the southern states remained out of the ordinary (Ayers, 2010). 
   
Although, the southern powers tried to reverse the trend that risked their slave power by seeking assistance from allies in England, it seemed that freedom was inevitable in the new society. The southern powers were considered inhumane, cruel, backward and power hungry by majority of the Americans which gave credence to the northern powers. The southern powers received another blow when the idea of freedom took a political force with the main party, the Republican Party supporting the idea (Ayers, 2010).
   
In the 1860s presidential elections, the Republican Party campaigned against the expansion of the slave powers northwards. The Republicans were led by Abraham Lincoln who won the elections due to the support by proponents of freedom for all slaves. This was followed by increased hostility between the northern states and the southern states. The rival allies started raising armies when it became clear that war was inevitable. When President Lincoln proclaimed emancipation which overruled slavery in the southern states, slavery became the center of the war. Although the confederation army won several battles especially in the east, they were unable to advance northwards. The union army on the other hand continued gaining control over the more land which led to the collapse of the confederation in 1865 (Guelzo, 2004).
   
The proclamation of emancipation was a big gust to the southern states that relied on slave labor in the production of cotton. This weakened the southern powers and consequently the confederation army which led to it defeats. The emancipation led to the thirteenth amendment of the United States constitution which made all forms of slavery illegal. This amendment was later followed by the 14th amendment and the 15th amendment which granted African Americans United States citizenship and the right to vote respectively (William, 2001).
   
After the confederation army was defeated by the union army in the civil war, the African Americans in the south who were previously slaves started progressing. This period of progression is commonly known as the reconstruction period. The African Americans in the southern states were protected by the union troops and many progresses in the promotion of equality were achieved where the African Americans men started participating in politics. The African American children increasingly accessed quality education in public schools. African Americans established their businesses, churches and towns while many others migrated to Mississippi where they established their own farms. By the end of the nineteenth century, more than sixty percent of the lands in Mississippi especially in the Mississippi delta were owned by African Americans (Guelzo, 2004).
   
In conclusion, the emancipation was a major issue during the American civil war in the 19th century. The southern states supported slavery while the northern states opposed slavery and provided refuge for runaway slaves. The reconstruction and the aftermath of the American civil war and emancipation are considered to have played the important role in the national identity formation of African American society.

The second half of the second century was marked by numerous steps towards the realization of a society free from racial discrimination. Many people believed that the Second World War was a war against racial discrimination. But was this really the truth People were murdered, subjugated or segregated based on their race or religion (Smedley, pp 24). However, changes that took place after the civil rights era seemed to have transformed the American society into an equitable society but this is not the case. Discrimination against the minority in the United States remain entrenched in the law especially the drug prohibition laws that target the African Americans and the Latino Americans (Glasser, Para 1).
   
Following the civil rights era in the second half of the 20th century, all racial discrimination that was legally enforced was abolished. This included segregation in the armed forces, schools and public transport, discrimination in voting, employment, and ownership of property and general replacement of the Jim Crows laws with a legal equality infrastructure (Smedley, pp 126). This was after endless civil disobedient and intimidations of the human rights activists by the administration. However, things did not change automatically. Although there is a basic assumption that there are no legal discrimination against the minority races in the United States, the drug prohibition laws and their enforcement is a major civil rights issue today. It is therefore wrong to assume that legal discrimination does not exist in the United States (Glasser, Para 2). 
   
In the 1960s, when the civil rights movements were at their peak, the federal and states correctional facilities had less than two hundred thousand prisoners. In 2004, the number of prisoners in the United States was estimated to be over 2.2 million. This has been directly attributed to the drug prohibition laws commonly known as the war on drugs introduced by President Nixon in the late 1960s. It is important to note that majority of these prisoners are accused of drug offenses which are nonviolent and victimless. Majority of them are accused of possession of illegal drugs either for own consumption or petty sales. It is estimated that the number of drug related arrests have increased with three folds since 1980 which has increased the number of incarceration due to drug crimes from less than a quarter to more than half of the total prisoners population (Glasser, Para 3).
   
This has resulted into racial disparity in the arrest and incarcerations (HRWR, pp 2). Whereas about thirteen percent of all drug users in the United States are African Americans, the same race account for about 37 of arrests, 53 of convictions and 67 of incarcerations related to drugs. Another minority group affected by the war on drugs laws is the Latino Americans. It is estimated that 22 of the illegal drug users are either Latino or African Americans but they account for 80 of all drug related incarceration (Glasser, Para 4).
   
The high number of Latinos and African Americans being incarcerated is as a result of them being the target of the drug prohibition laws and not them being more affected by the problem. It is more likely that a Latino or African American driving on the highway or walking on the streets will be stopped and frisked by law enforcers. The racial profiling as a direct consequence of the drug prohibition laws has escalated into a major civil right issue not only in the south but in the entire country (Glasser, Para 7).
   
In conclusion, four decades after the Jim Crow laws were abolished in the United States laws, discrimination is still legally entrenched in the American legal system. The high number of African Americans and Latino Americans being incarcerated due to non violent and victimless drug crimes can only be explained by racial profiling.

Humanitarian policy and conflict research in a non-profitable Organization which extends its activities through out the world, its foundation in Brussels and its main aim is to develop, innovate and promote strategic policy tools to concentrate on multifaceted security challenges, especially in situation of armed conflict.  The activities of the HPCR international are bound for producing an impact on policy and decision making processes on the increasing of policy oriented-research. The UNICEF which is one of the international community if faced with growing complex humanitarian crises bring about as a result of chronic conflict, impulsive and major natural disaster such as floods, Earthquakes and droughts as well as existing and potential virulent diseases.

The purpose of the UNICEFs humanitarian response is to safeguard the life of the people, alleviate misery and protection of childrens rights.  It also builds on national and international competence, is mutual and is based on best practice. The UNICEF and UN reform is co-operating with NGOs, UN and other agencies in order to develop and appliance a number of humanitarians reform initiatives.  The main aim of these initiatives is to improve predictability, efficiency and liability of the humanitarian response. UNICEF proposed to innovate the new and emerging policy debates and also to ensure it country offices in this regard.

HUMANITARIAN REFORM
Currently the humanitarian organizations have more developed in its service such as saving life of the people and to alleviate them from suffering and also support for the right of the people in need.  However there is complexity in the humanitarian system in order to tackle all humanitarian crises.  In the present scenario the humanitarian community should be more practical to tackle and to manage any natural disaster through out the world.  In the year 2005 the Emergency Relief Coordinator launched a comprehensive humanitarian reform process

HUMANITARIAN ACCESS
Around the world during numerous emergencies, humanitarian aid is being blocked, due to this most of people deprived to get, majority of them were children in anxious need of help.  Access is frequently refused due to assumption as contrary to the political and military objectives of a warning party.  All armed groups have a own responsibility in order to protect civilians as per Geneva Conventions customary humanitarian law accordingly.  Moreover as per international protection and assistance, victims and displaced persons are also entitled (Unicef n.d).

An earthquake struck off on 27th February 2010 in Central Chile at the depth of 22 miles which was second largest ever recorded in Chile and fifth largest recorded worldwide since 1900. The official death toll is 507 according Ministry of the Interior Chile, about 200,000 homes have been badly smashed or destroyed.  Chilean government started relief process and harmonization assistance. After several efforts the international humanitarian relief operation was limited, additional request from government for assistance.  On the request of President Barack Obama on 27th February 2010 announced to extend the help USA for the recovery of earthquake rescue, US Department of Defense could not assist up to the mark. The level of US assistance is policy issues of potential assistance.  

There are two contradictions to understand the role of humanitarian NGOs challenge in humanitarian international relations. There are influential - non-state actors and autonomous, in order to pursuit their own-driven agendas or will they serve only as paid agent of national government, offering a service delivery function. Abby Stoddard offer a new  one that though humanitarian NGOs are dependent due to their funding can control state policy formation, but not in the manner of  interest-based advocacy group.
The humanitarian community works for helping the people who will be in danger or who will acquire any help. In present days, there are millions of people recognized who were seek for their endurance. Nearly one billion people bothered by starvation. Many children die from ailments. Lot of women and girls faced assaults by sexual aggression. Tens of millions of people were thrown out from homes because of some divergence and catastrophe. The humanitarian community works for all these type of people (Global Issues 2008).

HUMANITARIAN AID FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN AGRICULTURE
 Most of poor people live in rural areas. They depend on agriculture and its relating. The developing countries are mostly based on agriculture. The UN system takes many actions to help the developing countries in agriculture by some organizations like Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Food Programe (WFP) and some projects and financial agricultural development programs (Global Issues 2009).
   
International trade helps very much for agricultural trade liberalization. The FAO also takes and improve the projects for reducing the agricultural shortage of developing countries and it hopes that the agricultural production will increase considerably by the period of 2030. The report also refers that for this development it is necessary that is the abolition of export subsidies of agricultural goods in both developing and developed countries (Highbeam 2002). 
   
The United Nations FAO says that the biotechnology in agriculture shows most harmful impact on poor farmers in developing countries.  And FAO also warned about the over dependence of agriculture improvement on the heritably customized organisms by using of this biotechnologies. But Mr.Traore notified the FAO sponsored conference on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Developing countries the biotechnologies however dont show any significant impact of people who lives in developing countries (UN News Center 2010).   
   
UN also gathered experts and their suggestions for strengthen agriculture in developing countries. The United Nations agency endorses business to finding ways to investment and technology transfers among the developing countries with the name South-South cooperation. According to United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) report in recent years the agricultural production and development has been neglected (UN News Center 2009).
   
In 2007, World Food Programme (WFP) bought from 69 developing countries 80 of food globally at 612 million under the Purchase for Progress (P4P) programme. By approving of 258 million fund by the Executive Board of the UN International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) 16 developing countries receive major boost (UN News Center 2008).
 With helping of combined efforts of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International.
   
The United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) calls for investment in agriculture to help the poor in developing countries in a meeting. The attendees of that meeting suggest that through micro-credit programmes and researches can also take efforts to reduce the transport costs, for increasing productivity. IFAD President Lennart Bge pleads for more investments in agriculture (UN News Center 2008).

According to a report of World agriculture towards 20152030 instigated by  FAO of UN  by the year 2030 we could have the enough food for growing population globally, but still in developing countries undergo from starving because of the serious position of agriculture. Even these programmes were developed for farming there is only 3 of all global aid is aimed towards agricultural.

Though waning of outside aid the agricultural trade is low at all times. John Shaw wrote in his book Global Food and Agricultural Institutions that the negligence of government and investors in agriculture in developing countries is cause for the food crisis of 2007. The agricultural productivity is weak in Asian countries also, but not only Africa. Even if there are so many organizations and programmes for development in agriculture such as Food and Agriculture Organization, The World Food Programmes, The World Bank, The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, USAID, US Foundations, The International Fund for Agricultural Development and Land Grand Universities, with some complexity issues in agriculture and other sectors like Lack of water sources by climate change and waning farm size by developing other sectors still the developing countries endured by poverty.

For achieving broad based growth, the farming development is necessary to developing countries. Overall,
Short-term policies, international organizations advices, investments in agriculture are most necessary to achieve the agricultural development. These will help to developing for its continuous increment in production. The third of the worlds human race is directly reliant on cultivation. The present inclinations towards mutual and vertical aid hold back aid efficiency. Consequently the outcomes are not attained. So international Organizations harmonize with each other and increase useful mutual aid among them to facilitate long-term investment in developing countries cultivation and to reduce antagonism among them (Institute Of Development Studies 2009). 

INTERNATIONAL FUND FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT(IFAD)
International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD) was establishedin 1977, is a special agency of united nation. In 1974,World Food Conference is one of the major for IFAD. In developed countries IFAD is dedicated to rural poverty. IFAD have its headquarters in Rome.

The conference found that the struggle for food insecurity and famine is due to structural problems which relate to poverty. The dedication of IFAD is to develop the indigenous peoples due to its targeted approach to rural development and also in eradicating poverty in rural areas of developing countries. The focuses of IFAD is increasing rural people access to financial services, market technology etc. the shocking fact is that 75 of the worlds poorest people depend on agriculture who live in rural areas which is about 1.05 billion people of the world(Ifad n.d).

It works with poor ruralpeopleto develop theopportunities in their own communities. In rural areas the majority of poor people will live for at least 30 years. They work with national partners to design and implement innovative programmes and national policies and systems as well as. They enable poor rural people to access the assets services and opportunities.They need overcome poverty. They help in knowledge, skills and organizations. So that they have their own influence and development will affect their lives.     IFAD convoluted on the statement of poverty reduction is not only based on governments, non-governments and institutions and organizations. It is possible by all of their partnership work (Ifad 2003).

They tested new and innovative approaches to reducing poverty. They share their knowledge and work with other countries to scale up successful approaches. IFAD international fund for agricultural development is established to develop the agriculture by giving funds. IFAD was organized to improve the quality of the life of poor individuals who live in rural areas.  

Objective of IFAD
The object of the IFAD is that poor in rural areas should have better access to skills and organizations which they need to approach for advantages these includes in case of
 Natural resources, the peoples to access to land and water and the usage of natural resource management in case of agriculture as the poor people of rural are dependant on agriculture for their livelihood.
The technologies used by the people of rural areas should be of improved one and production from agriculture should be high.

Direct and competitive markets for agricultural inputs and produce.
The financial services provided to agriculture should reach the people accurately and in a correct time.
 Opportunities for rural off-farm employment.
 Effective policies should be introduced in both local and national level to   achieve good result in agriculture.
 enabling the poor to strengthen and develop their own organization.
Membership of IFAD
The international fund for agricultural development consists of Executive board and President and Governing council

President
He or she is the chief executive officer of IFAD and chair of the Executive Board, the term of the president is for four years. The current president of IFAD is Kenya F.Nwanze. The IFAD has 165 member states and the membership in IFAD is open to any state which is a member of United Nations, or any of its specialized agencies or the International Atomic Energy Agency.

Executive board
Executive board is consisting of 18 members and 18 alternative members this board is responsible for general operations of IFAD and also for approving loans. The membership of the executive board is determined as list A which consists of primarily OECD members list B consists of OPEC members list C consist of developing countries (Ifad n.d).

Governing council
The governing council is the highest decision making authority, the membership of the executive board is arrived by governing council. The membership of the Executive Board distributed into list A which consists of eight members and eight Alternative members List B consists of four members and four alternative members List C consists of six members and six alternate members. Member votes are divided into original votes and new replenishment votes, this has been further divided each into two groups which are Membership votes and Contribution votes.
Anti corruption policy

As like a proverb just planning is of no use unless there is a proper implementation so to proper implementation of a plan corruption should by eradicated completely. The anti corruption policy is to take efforts so that development funds reach the poor people in rural areas very safely.
Activities of IFAD

A. Loans and Resources
IFAD Executive Board permit first loan project in April 1978. At the end of 1980 the funds amount reached to nearly US900 million and the loans granted to 70 developing countries.  By1983, the financial commitments exceeded by US1.4 billion. In 2002 by committing of US 7.7 billion in loans and US 31.9 billion in grants IFAD helped approximately 47 million rural poor households it equal to 257 million people.
In 1986, the Governing Council agreed on a second replenishment of IFADs resources totaling US 488 million, of which List A countries pledged US 276 million List B countries, US 184 million and List C countries, US 28 million. In 1990, the Governing Council agreed on a third replenishment. Member countries offered to provide contributions totaling US 567 million of which List A countries pledged US 378 million List B countries, US 124 million, and List C countries, US 65 million. A fourth replenishment, totaling US 470 million, began in February 1997. Of this, US 419 million was pledged as of 9 December 1999. A fifth replenishment, totaling US 473 million, covered the period 200103. Over the IFAD V period, donor contributions covered 46 of IFADs total resource needs, and the rest were met through reflows from past loans (49) and investment income (5). A seventh replenishment was being prepared in 2005.
B. Lending Policies and Operations

IFAD loan operations fall into two groups projects initiated by the fund and projects co-financed with other financial and development institutions. IFAD-initiated projects are those for which the fund has taken the lead in project identification and preparation and in mobilizing additional resources from other financial agencies where necessary.

Most of IFADs assistance has been provided on highly concessional termsloans repayable over 50 years with a 10-year grace period and an annual service charge of 1.

The loans are repayable over 20 years at 4 annual interest, while a few have been offered at 8 over 1518 years. However, at its 17th session of January 1994, the Governing Council adopted a resolution which amended the lending terms and conditions for the first time since the funds establishment.

In the future, those developing members countries having a Gross National Product (GNP) per capita of US 805 or less in 1992 prices, or which qualify for loans from the World Banks soft loan agency, the International Development Association, will normally be eligible to receive loans from IFAD on highly concessional terms. Loans on highly concessional terms will be free of interest but will bear a service charge of 0.75 per annum and have a repayment period of 40 years, including a grace period of 10 years. The total amount of loans provided each year on highly concessional terms will be IFAD, while seeking to preserve an appropriate balance in its regional allocations, also has attempted to respond to the special needs of the 74 low-income, food-deficit countries. Well over 80 of the funds loans were channeled to these countries in the 197895 periods. The regional shares of IFAD-supported projects approved among197895 under both regular and special programs were Africa (sub-Sahara), 41 Asia and the Pacific, 26 Latin America and the Caribbean, 16 and Near East and North Africa, 16.4.

In January 1986, IFAD, as the first international financial institution to respond to the socioeconomic crisis in sub-Saharan Africa, in the wake of the disastrous droughts and famines of 198385, launched the Special Programme for Sub-Saharan African Countries Affected by Drought and Desertification (SPA), with a target for resource mobilization of US 300 million. This target was outrun by contributions reaching US 322.8 million from five developing countries and the European Community.

The program aims to restore the productive capacity of small farmers, promote traditional food crops mainly grown by small-holders, and initiate small-scale water control schemes, in addition to recommending measures for environmental protection and providing assistance to governments in regard to policy.

C. Technical Assistance
IFAD also offers financial support for technical assistance in agricultural research, any project preparation, and developments of institutions and in other activities (HighBeam Research 2007).
There are some defects in IFAD procedures like funded programme or projects, its irrespective size and especially the loan approving risk of lapse-of-time produce. So it is necessary to reducing these risks by IFAD (IFAD 2009).

The Humanitarian Response Review tends to consider to those factors which drawback its speed and effectiveness of humanitarian response in the earlier period.  The recommendations presented in the report identified clearly and also addressed the need of promote.
System improvement shared plan action within a short time. Comprehensive vision of necessary reforms.
Responsibility in especially towards people in need.
Co-operation within and between the Red CrossRed Crescent Movement, the UN system and NGOs.

There is a need that the developing countries must take the actions themselves to get improvement in agriculture by the necessity and confront of poverty. These countries also required domestic political obligations to agriculture. They require intend and transport services dependable with their own institutional authenticity, so there is a requirement for long-term steady investments. So there is an emerging of Humanitarian activities development. Even IFAD provides maximum facilities to developing there is requirement of further better activities.

Detroit was a town that many envied during the first half of the twentieth century. It had a vibrant industrial sector that offered employment to the people of Detroit that is both blacks and whites. Nonetheless, this glory did not last long and soon the town became the nations symbol of urban decay (Boyle, 2001, p. 109).  This paper will focus on who and what was to blame for Detroits postwar decline Was this decline inevitable
Detroit began its decline in the 1940s and in between late 1960s and early 1970s it went downhill so quickly that many scholars have tried to explain the reason for its rapid decline. The deterioration of the town can be traced back to the years after the Second World War. During the prewar era, Detroit was a town that offered equal opportunities to all its citizens and the kind of life they all led was proof.  Many people lived in the middle class level and the city had new buildings cropping up and many families owned homes (Boyle, 2001 Thompson, 2004).

In 1967, there was a riot. The riot was violent the whites fled the town out of fear of violence as well as the future.  The fleeing of the whites saw the town transform and it become a poor town for the blacks, as they are the only ones who remained behind after the riots.  The blacks became the majority and the entire towns administration was black. To make the matter worse in the 1970s the town was hit by an oil crisis and this led to the collapse of the automobile industry that had employed many blacks and thus many became jobless.  This change of events led to a big gap between the blacks and the whites.  However, some believe that the fortunes of Detroit did not change entirely due to the riots but due to another factor (Boyle, 2001).
White Detroiters are said to be the cause of Detroits collapse using the influence they had in the institutions they headed.  The automobile institution was the basis of Detroits economy and the whites controlled the union of workers called the United Automobile Workers (UAW). Problems began when the leaders of UAW changed the companies policies, which had been progressive in nature in what was known as Treaty of Detroit(Boyle,2001, p. 111).

This meant that the automakers had a say in the decisions of their firms and the working conditions. The union also managed to fight for higher wages and salaries for its members. This change in running things meant that UAW had relinquished its say over how the automobile firms ran the affairs and they were free to do whatever they willed.  For example, they dictated prices, location without considering the public as long as they made profits.  The shop-floor discipline was increased and the factories neglected the concerns of their factory hands (Boyle, 2001, p. 111). In pushing for higher wages, the workers were split into two. 

This lead to a discrepancy and the male white workers earned higher salaries while the nonunion members who comprised of females and blacks got low wages with hardly any benefits. For example, a black union member took home less than two dollars a day and this was lower than what a white mechanic roofer earned (Sugrue, 2004).  Consequently, a conflict developed between the two groups of workers.

The AUW did not manage to bring about equality in the workplace and discrimination against the blacks persisted. The blacks who looked for employment in the auto industry often got the worst jobs. They worked in hazardous conditions and even though there was a new deal in the trade union, it did not favor the African Americans. In some factories, the employers specifically requested for white employees because they feared the black influx in their factories because they thought they would bring about problems later in the workplace.  This discrimination only served to increase racial animosity in Detroit. Some of the factories were closed due to the influx of blacks such as Hudson Motors and Curtis Aircraft to protest the high number of black employees (Thompson, 2004). This discrimination eventually led to black protests against the unfair treatment, which led to riots in 1967. The blacks protested because they felt that the government was not doing enough to rectify the situation. The aim was to bring down the discriminatory practices that had pushed at the bottom of every aspect of life in Detroit from employment to housing and even education (Sugrue, 2004).The riots resulted in further decline of the town. This means that the town began to deindustrialize.

Through deindustrialization Detroit lost some of the industries that had given many people employment opportunities.  Furthermore, the companies acquired machines and this meant that many people had to be laid off as they were no longer necessary. That was not all as more jobs were shipped out of the town. Such actions led to the decline of Detroit after the war. Jobs  in the industrial sector had fell  134,000 between 1943 and 1963 (Boyle, 2001. p. 114).

The abandonment of Detroit by the whites led to its vast poverty because once a town lost its white residents it became largely irrelevant socially and political entities (Thompson, 2004, p. 5).  The whites were uneasy with the blacks and this often led to violent attacks towards them by the blacks. In turn, the whites were conservative towards the blacks. They used their power to try to define Detroit during the postwar. However it was hard to do because the whites had political differences amongst themselves. Some supported civil rights whiles others opposed them. The whites who supported the civic right felt that the blacks deserved equal opportunities. The blacks demanded equal treatment as well as access to resources. The whites thus felt threatened by these demands and they did not become sympathetic with the plight of the blacks who were living in poverty. This led to an increase in the racial tension between the blacks and the whites after the post war era. Yet many had hoped that they migration of the blacks to the north would lead to unity between the two races (Thompson, 2004).

The unity was not found and the blacks had to settle in areas that were previously occupied by Jews. The areas were called the Black Bottom and Paradise   Valley (Thompson, 2004, p. 16). Life in these areas was very difficult and the city administrators did nothing to rectify the situation.  Therefore, we can say that the Detroiters had a hand in the destruction of their once successful city. The whites who were determined to maintain the race imbalance led to problems that scarred Detroit forever. The political leaders on the other hand failed tot address the issues that were at the core of Detroit such as unequal distribution of resources that led to riots in opposition of the unfairness in resource distribution.

The once beautiful Detroit with beautiful houses was declining because houses were being burnt down. The white destroyed houses belong to blacks who moved into the white areas. Sometimes their cars, garages were also destroyed. The blacks were thus forced to remain in the city in ghettos yet there were no longer adequate jobs due to deindustrialization.  This kind of behavior led to the decline of the town because the burnt house became ruins and it is possible to see the ruins of Detroit today (Boyle, 2001). 

The   decline was inevitable because of the preceding events. The whites had failed to tolerate or accept the blacks into their society. Through their insistence of segregation in housing, school and workplace they help to escalate race tensions. The oppressed blacks could not believe they would go on suffering as they had hoped that migrating to the north and the end of world war two would bring about change in their situation. They were disillusioned when they realized that the north was not as promising as they had anticipated and something had to give way thus the decline in Detroit.

The other thing that made the decline inevitable was the exclusion of the blacks in politics. The exclusion meant that their cause did not have people to articulate. Ironically, when some blacks were elected they did not bring the change that had been anticipated.  Being locked out in the political cold was tantamount to shooting the blacks in the leg because they could not have say over the policies that affected their lives directly such as the policy that reinforced housing segregation.

Finally, the only way a town or country can avoid decline is by including all the members in the running of the affairs of the country. This is through equal political representation to give all people a chance to be represented in decision-making. The government must work hard to ensure that there is fair equity of resources to avoid creating animosity between those the haves and the have-nots. This is the only way to ensure that a town or country continues to flourish year after year. 

The world of epic is picaresque for its distinctive character. Every nation or ethnical entity has such a precious legacy. African epic is peculiar for the historical, cultural, religious, and traditional features. It is demonstrated in many works by different griots. In this respect, African epics consider to be reproduced solely by male griots (Allan 195). Women were usually thought of playing the minor part in the African folklore. It is concerned mainly with female singing. A woman should keep the household and a child in safety throughout various African epics. This evaluation gives substantial grounds to suppose the significant role of a woman being helpful and helping the main heroes in their troubles. Thus, the role of a woman in African epics is outlined in the image of a sister, a mother, or a wife who helps the main hero overcome the difficulties of life.

First of all, it is vital to take notice of the West African epic of Mande people called Son-Jara (also known as Sunjata). This epic illustrates the glorious past of Mande people described on the example of the main hero - Sunjata (Conrad and Cond 2). In fact, the epic describes multiple episodes in which women appear in their traditionally significant roles. It concerns the figure of buffalo woman and the role of an old woman (or Kamara woman) in the epic. Moreover, the special account refers to a woman, as a bearer of a child. The most respectful attitude in this sacral African epic is dedicated toward a woman, as a source of wisdom and care.

Son-Jara expressed an enormous piece of respect and love to his mother when she died. There is no mention on the lower position of a woman. There are only words of praise and inner delight for a man who has entered the world owing to a woman. The epic of Son-Jara describes the way the main hero pleased the dead body of his mother
Son-Jara looked in on the Konde woman,
But the Konde woman had abandoned the world.
He washed his mothers body,
And then he dug her grave,
And wrapped her (Johnson and Sisk 85)

In fact, the epic is a long narrative orally transmitted by male bards or jesere, which is implemented in a rich and highly poetic African language (Biebuyck 5). In this respect the world of poetic word that surpasses the construct of every epic is really distinctive for everyone. On the other hand, the image of a woman is apparent in many other African epics. For instance, in the heroic epic of Jeki la Njanbe Inono the main idea goes across some mystical as well as splendidly depicted events. Thereupon, Ngrilo Epee Tungum is the central woman who gave birth to a child from above, Jeki (Johnson, Hale and Belcher 278). The magnificence of this very woman is underlined in the epic by her obedience to the Higher Powers and to her husband. Her purity and divinity are characterized through such peculiar episodes when she was forced to give birth to a child upon his (childs) strong request. Thus, there should be more points on ethnicity that matters among African peoples.

The ethnical specificity of epics recounted traditionally by men and recently by women provides a theme of marriage, as the main point to develop other significant themes on the importance of women. In this respect the topic of marriage gives birth, so to speak, to such themes as love, adultery, courtship, sterility, etc. (Emenyo2nu, Emenyonu and Imbuga 16). The male roles as well as the solely male participaption in recounting epics in Africa made African women emphasize the extra-ordinary place of female characters within the epics. The most viable evidence is the Epic of Good Brides and Young Women by Safi Hassan (Emenyo2nu, Emenyonu and Imbuga 15). In fact, the role of a woman was never reduced or underestimated in the African epic works. The life Mande and other Sub-Saharan peoples lived and the bygone glory they shared in the past are eventually related to the figure of a woman, as a bearer of life.

Thus, in the African epics a woman is described in her ongoing battle with a man and her main value, i.e. taking care of a child (Hale 231). Women in Africa were always active in everything that related to folklore. They can fairly be called domestic goddesses and those who watch the correct representation of what was primordially described by ancestors in a definite epic. In this respect the scholars provide the example of the unique and only-begotten epic text by a woman. The question is about the epic, called Sara (Allan 195). Thus, one may suppose that the participation of women (direct or indirect) was really significant in composing and recounting African epics from generation to generation.

The Mwindo Epic of the BaNyanga provides a scope of episodes where women are depicted in their supremacy over men in households and in their keeping a strict eye on children (Belcher 38). The epic points out the life of the African community and its collective tribal nature. Moreover, the main character is opened-hearted and feels free to show personal intentions toward a woman that have charmed him greatly.
All in all, the epic description of women in the African epics goes along with the traditional century-long ability of African people of keeping their culture and their style of folk representation in safety.

The figure of a woman has a preliminary significance as a goddess sent to generate the most glorious and heroic men on the African continent. Such a speculation is a result of thorough observation of the records that reflect the body of each epic verbally. Even so, the African epics cannot fail to glorify the participation of women in the world of men. It is described in the epics extrinsically. Nevertheless, Berete woman, Konde woman, Kamara women and Ngrilo Epee Tungum are identified as bearers of human happiness and hope, meaning children, first of all. On the other hand, the role of a woman in the African epics contemplates the well-being of a man.

Being that vibrant and unique in representation, the epics are reproduced and sung not solely by griots but also by griotesses (Hale 45). Such an important shift in gender relationships in African Sub-Saharan countries is a vivid manifestation of a womans better assistance in men-related affairs. It touches upon the responsibility to take care of the culture and folk tradition transmitted orally in the course of time. On the example of Son-Jara one highlights that due to womens responsibility in the family and ability to give birth to many new people the Kuyate matriarch came forward (Johnson, Hale and Belcher 14). Thus, there is no doubt that the place of a woman in the African epics is compelling. Thereupon, the line from Son-Jara that being a woman is a malady sounds quite controversially after such a deeper look at the figure of a woman in the African world of epics.